1. Materials Science in Fusion Devices Angela M. Capece Department of Physics The College of New Jersey SULI Introductory Course in Plasma Physics, PPPL June 10, 2016

2. A.M. Capece Nuclear energy (fission & fusion) comes from the mass defect of the nucleus Advantages of fusion energy: Clean Green Safe Abundant MASS DEFECT: The whole < the sum of the parts! (e.g., mass of He nucleus is less than mass of 2p + 2n) Larger mass defect  greater BE Going from low BE to higher binding energy releases energy 2/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

3. A.M. Capece We need fusion to survive Advantages of fusion energy: Clean Green Safe Abundant H fuel extracted from seawater D-D fusion can power the world for 2x10 9 yr Coal: 200 yr Natural gas: 20 yr U235/Th232 breeder reactors: 20,000 yr Fuel efficient City of 1 million, need 60 kg of H 2 3/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

4. A.M. Capece Hydrogen fusion requires high temperature & pressure  Plasma! Temperatures of 100 million K are required (and have been achieved!) The sun uses gravity to confine the plasma We use magnetic fields Magnets Plasma Is it possible on Earth? YES! We’ve done it before. In fact, we did it here. (Nov 2, 1994 – 10 megawatts of fusion power) 4/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

5. A.M. Capece Hydrogen fusion requires high temperature & pressure  Plasma! Magnets Plasma So why don’t we have it yet? The trouble with fusion is… Confining enough hydrogen For long enough times At sufficiently high temperatures 5/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

6. A.M. Capece Hydrogen fusion requires high temperature & pressure  Plasma! Magnets Plasma So why don’t we have it yet? The trouble with fusion is… Confining enough hydrogen For long enough times At sufficiently high temperatures 1.Better magnets 2.Better materials We need… 6/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

7. A.M. Capece Hydrogen fusion requires high temperature & pressure  Plasma! Magnets Plasma So why don’t we have it yet? The trouble with fusion is… Confining enough hydrogen For long enough times At sufficiently high temperatures 1.Better magnets 2.Better materials We need… 7/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

8. A.M. Capece What happens when you try to contain a plasma? 1.The plasma affects the surface 1.The surface affects the plasma Plasma Wall Material Physical & chemical properties of the material can change Plasma Wall Material Chemical composition of the plasma can change 8/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

9. A.M. Capece Plasma Wall Material What do we have in the plasma? How plasma affects the surface: 9/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

10. A.M. Capece Plasma Wall Material What do we have in the plasma? -High energy electrons -H 2, H, H 2 +, H +, He, He + -neutrons We have high energy particles & reactive species How plasma affects the surface: 10/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

11. A.M. Capece Plasma Wall Material What do we have in the plasma? -High energy electrons, H 2, H, H 2 +, H +, He, He +, neutrons What do these species do? -Impart energy to the wall (heating): ave loads are 10 MW/m 2 -Erode the wall material -Implant themselves in the wall – Limit on tritium retention! -Do chemistry on the wall – form different compounds -Can weaken the material – material swelling / embrittlement from neutrons, fuzz formation How plasma affects the surface: SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 11/51

12. A.M. Capece What do we have at the surface? -A thermal sink (results in temperature gradients near the wall) How the surface affects the plasma: Plasma Wall Material Plasma Material 10 8 10 6 10 4 10 2 Temperature (K) Distance from the surface (m) SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 12/51

13. A.M. Capece What else do we have at the surface? -A thermal sink (results in temperature gradients near the wall) -A nearly infinite source of impurities -A source of electrons (from the atoms in the surface) How the surface affects the plasma: Plasma Wall Material SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 13/51

14. A.M. Capece What do we have at the surface? -A thermal sink (results in temperature gradients near the wall) -A nearly infinite source of impurities -Impurities enter at low temps  reduction in plasma temperature! -Dilute the fuel  leads to reduction in fusion power! -Material deposited where it is not wanted (e.g., on an expensive diagnostic) How the surface affects the plasma: Plasma Wall Material SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 14/51

15. A.M. Capece What do we have at the surface? -A thermal sink (results in temperature gradients near the wall) -A nearly infinite source of impurities -A source of electrons (from the atoms in the surface) -Electron emission from the wall: cools the edge plasma & changes electric potential -Results in gradients in temperature and potential  drives instabilities & reduced confinement How the surface affects the plasma: Plasma Wall Material SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 15/51

16. A.M. Capece Plasmas can be spectacularly destructive! Melted tungsten tile B. Lipschultz, Nucl. Fusion (2012) Erosion of molybdenum ion thruster grid R.E. Wirz, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. (2008) Tungsten tile in fusion device, before & after plasma exposure Z. Hartwig, MIT Tungsten fuzz M.J. Baldwin & R.P. Doerner, Nucl. Fusion (2008) SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 16/51

17. A.M. Capece Five main processes that occur at the plasma-materials interface SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 17/51

18. A.M. Capece Five main processes that occur at the plasma-materials interface 1.Positive Ion Neutralization (Recombination) M.A. Lieberman, Principles of Plasma Discharges & Materials Processing Occurs for all energies (10-1000 eV, typical) All ions immediately neutralized 2 options: -Electron enters excited state (radiates a photon as it transitions to lower state) -Electron enters ground state & 2 nd electron absorbs excess energy – Auger Neutralization also secondary electron emission (SEE) SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 18/51

19. A.M. Capece Five main processes that occur at the plasma-materials interface 1.Positive Ion Neutralization (Recombination) Bruining, Physica 5 (1938) 17. SEE depends on the ion species and the composition of the solid SEE yield of Be SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 19/51

20. A.M. Capece Five main processes that occur at the plasma-materials interface 2. Absorption/Desorption (low energy, 1 eV) Desorption of 1 st order (a) & second order process (b) http://users-phys.au.dk/philip/pictures/physicsfigures/node18.html Rate equation for desorption: (dependent on binding energy & temperature) SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 20/51

21. A.M. Capece Five main processes that occur at the plasma-materials interface 3. Physical Sputtering (10-100 eV) Sputtering Higher energy transfer when masses are similar: Rate equation: Yield (empirical) = number sputters per incident ion SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 21/51

22. A.M. Capece Five main processes that occur at the plasma-materials interface 3. Physical Sputtering (10-100 eV) Sputtering Sputter yields of silicon as a function of ion energy for noble gas ions: http://xpssimplified.com/depth_profiling.php SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 22/51

23. A.M. Capece Five main processes that occur at the plasma-materials interface 4. Implantation (1000 eV) Implanta tion http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2015/05/ 25/4229949.htm 5. Reactions with/on a surface SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 23/51

24. A.M. Capece Five main processes that occur at the plasma-materials interface 1.Positive Ion Neutralization (Recombination) Ions that hit the surface are neutralized e + A + + S  A + S 2.Absorption/Desorption (low energy, 1 eV) Evaporation rate increases exponentially with temperature 3.Physical Sputtering (10-100 eV) Independent of surface temperature 4.Implantation (1000 eV) 5.Reactions with/on a surface Dependent on surface temperature Sputtering Implantation Absorption/Desorption SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 24/51

25. A.M. Capece Reality is much more complex! Image from D. Whyte, http://psisc.org/mission 25/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

26. A.M. Capece Some candidate materials and their properties Graphite: Does not melt (sublimes) Erosion and transport occurs easily leading to C deposits Can trap large amounts of tritium Beryllium: Low Z material Good thermal conductivity High sputter yields Low melting point Tungsten: High Z material Low sputter yield High melting point High Z materials (e.g. W, Mo): Poison the plasma Moderate uptake of tritium Good thermo-mechanical properties Low or negligible erosion at low plasma temperatures SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 26/51

27. A.M. Capece Liquid metals Advantages of liquid metals (lithium): No erosion No thermal fatigue No neutron damage Resilient again high heat fluxes Refreshes the surface Li concentration in the plasma is low Infrared image of liquid lithium a fusion device at PPPL. Flowing liquid Li experiment at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Li has shown to improve the plasma performance! Improved confinement time  Very important for fusion! SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 27/51

28. A.M. Capece But why does Li help? High D retention  Low recycling  High edge temperature  Reduced temperature gradients  Recycling Process: 1.Through volumetric conversion of Li to LiD (Baldwin & Doerner) 2. Through complexes that involve oxygen (Krstic, Allain, Taylor) Li absorbs D + ions and “retains” them better than other materials But how is D retained in Li? Working hypothesis: Deuterium retention SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 28/51

29. A.M. Capece Which material is best? We need to understand what happens at the surface! Atoms at the surface behave differently than atoms in the bulk material. The surface provides an environment where unique chemistry can occur. So, how do we study surfaces? Surfaces contain ~10 14 atoms/cm 2 Challenge: Detect 10 14 cm -2 signal on a 10 23 cm -3 background SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 29/51

30. A.M. Capece Which material is best? We need to understand what happens at the surface! Atoms at the surface behave differently than atoms in the bulk material. The surface provides an environment where unique chemistry can occur. So, how do we study surfaces? Surfaces contain ~10 14 atoms/cm 2 Challenge: Detect 10 14 cm -2 signal on a 10 23 cm -3 background. Solution: Use probes that strongly interact with matter, such as as electrons, ions, and photons (X-rays, UV light). SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 30/51

31. A.M. Capece From the simple to the complex Single crystal Simple Model Experiments More Complex Systems Monoenergetic ion beam (Image of He ions on phosphor screen) TZM (Engineering materials) Plasma sources / fusion devices Grain boundaries Alloying elements: Ti, Zr, C Surface roughness Multiple species, increased fluxes, atoms/ions/electrons/radi cals H+H+ H2+H2+ H3+H3+ SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 31/51

32. A.M. Capece From the simple to the complex Simple Model Experiments More Complex Systems Laboratory surface science experiments Linear plasma devices Fusion devices SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 32/51

33. A.M. Capece Laboratory surface science experiments Test stand instrumentation in the Surface Science & Technology Lab Key variables affecting chemistry at surface:  Pressure  Temperature  Composition Lab-based surface science experiments enable independent control of all variables …something we cannot achieve in a tokamak or linear plasma device! Isolate effects of:  Chemistry  Incident particle fluxes and energies  Substrate temperature  Surface composition  Morphology simplecomplex SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 33/51

34. A.M. Capece Laboratory surface science experiments Test stand instrumentation in the Surface Science & Technology Lab simplecomplex Li SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 34/51

35. Atomic-Level Diagnostics TechniqueInfo ObtainedAdditional Notes X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) / Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) Chemical composition Oxidation state Cannot detect H/D or He Probe depth ~10 nm Temperature Programmed Desorption (TPD) Desorption energy Rate constants Detects H Can determine the total amount of an adsorbed species on the surface Scanning Auger Microscopy (SAM) 2D elemental map of surface Ion etching SEM images Cannot detect H/D or He Can use ion etching to probe into deeper layers Ion Scattering Spectroscopy (ISS) Atoms/molecul es in top 1-3 layers Can use direct recoil spectroscopy to detect H/D SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 35/51

36. A.M. Capece X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) Gives composition of top 5-10 nm http://jacobs.physik.uni-saarland.de/english/instrumentation/uhvl.htm SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 36/51

37. A.M. Capece Auger Electron Spectroscopy 37/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

38. A.M. Capece Low-energy Ion Scattering Spectroscopy (LEISS) Very surface sensitive (probes top 1-3 layers) He usually used for incident ion 38/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

39. A.M. Capece Low-energy Ion Scattering Spectroscopy (LEISS) Very surface sensitive (probes top 1-3 layers) He usually used for incident ion 39/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

40. A.M. Capece Temperature programmed desorption Sample 1 cm Temperature Programmed Desorption (TPD) Technique:  Linear temperature ramp applied to sample  Partial pressure of desorbing species measured  Temperature of desorption peak relates to binding energy  Area under pressure vs. time curve proportional to number of atoms desorbed 40/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

41. A.M. Capece Temperature programmed desorption Sample 1 cm Area under pressure vs. time curve  # of atoms desorbed TPD can be used to measure D retention! 41/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

42. A.M. Capece C.H. Skinner et al., JNM 438, S647 (2013) Submonolayer Li Film  Submonolayer Li film on TZM stable up to 1000 K  Represents Li-Mo bonding  Desorption energy ~2.7 eV Example: Desorption of Li from Mo simplecomplex SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 42/51

43. A.M. Capece C.H. Skinner et al., JNM 438, S647 (2013)  Area under Li TPD curve increases with Li dose  Dipole interactions lower the desorption energy (~2 eV)  E d is a function of coverage Monolayer Submonolayer Example: Desorption of Li from Mo simplecomplex 43/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

44. A.M. Capece Example: Desorption of Li from Mo C.H. Skinner et al., JNM 438, S647 (2013)  Thick Li films (multilayer) evaporate at 500 K  Multilayer film represents Li-Li bonding  Cohesive energy of metallic Li ~1.7 eV Complete Monolayer Submonolayer Multilayer simplecomplex SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 44/51

45. A.M. Capece TPD can be used to determine D retention A.M. Capece, et al., JNM (2015) In lithium films as function of temperature: simplecomplex SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16 45/51

46. A.M. Capece Lipschultz et al., (2010) MIT Report PSFC/RR-10-4 TPD can be used to determine D retention In tungsten as function of fluence: simplecomplex 46/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

47. A.M. Capece SEM used to understand fuzz & bubble formation in W Tungsten fuzz M.J. Baldwin & R.P. Doerner, Nucl. Fusion (2008) S. Kajita, Nucl. Fusion 49 (2009) 095005 simplecomplex 47/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

48. A.M. Capece SEM used to understand fuzz & bubble formation in W S. Kajita, Nucl. Fusion 49 (2009) 095005 simplecomplex 48/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

49. A.M. Capece Materials Analysis Particle Probe (MAPP) Provides in-vacuo analysis of surface exposed to fusion plasma Correlates plasma performance with the surface state Provides immediate analysis XPS: Elemental/chemical composition Ion Scattering Spectroscopy: IDs surface species TPD: Gives binding energies, desorption products Direct Recoil Spectroscopy: Can detect H Courtesy of F. Bedoya simplecomplex 49/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

50. A.M. Capece Materials Analysis Particle Probe (MAPP) 50/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16

51. A.M. Capece Key takeaway messages The plasma and material are strongly coupled! Key PMI issues in fusion devices include: heat loading, erosion, fuel dilution, tritium retention, nuclear embrittlement So far, no perfect fusion material exists. Candidates are graphite, tungsten, beryllium, lithium Surface science can help to understand and diagnose the surface in model experiments that can help simulate the tokamak environment A variety of experiments of differing complexity are needed 51/51 SULI Introductory Course, 6/10/16