1. Heat transfer mechanism Dhivagar R Lecture 1 1

2. MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER Heat can be transferred in three different ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference, and all modes of heat transfer are from the high- temperature medium to a lower temperature one. Lecture 1 2

3. Conduction, Convection & Thermal Radiation Conduction refers to the transport of energy in a medium due to a temperature gradient. In contrast, the convection refers to heat transfer that occurs between a surface and a fluid (at rest or in motion) when they are at different temperatures. Lecture 1 3 Thermal radiation refers to the heat transfer that occurs between two surfaces at different temperatures. It results from the energy emitted by any surface in the form of electromagnetic waves.

4. Lecture 1 4 Conduction

5. It is observed that the rate of heat conduction through a layer of constant thickness Δx is proportional to the temperature difference ΔT across the layer and the area A normal to the direction of heat transfer, and is inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer, Δx. 5 where the constant of proportionality k t is the thermal conductivity of the material, which is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat (Table 1-1). Materials such as copper and silver, which are good electric conductors, are also good heat conductors, and therefore have high k t values. Materials such as rubber, wood, and styrofoam are poor conductors of heat, and therefore have low k t values.

6. Heat Transfer depends on the thermal conductivity of the material 6

7. Lecture 1 7 x hot wallcold wall temperature profile which is known as Fourier’s law of heat conduction. It indicates that the rate of heat conduction in a direction is proportional to the temperature gradient in that direction. Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes negative when temperature decreases with increasing x. Therefore, a negative sign is added in the Eq. to make heat transfer in the positive x direction a positive quantity.

8. Lecture 1 8 Convection

9. Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. Consider the cooling of a hot block by blowing of cool air over its top surface. Energy is first transferred to the air layer adjacent to the surface of the block by conduction. This energy is then carried away from the surface by convection; that is, by the combined effects of conduction within the air and the motion of the air, which removes the heated air near the surface and replaces it by the cooler air. Lecture 1 9

10. Forced and Free Convection Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to flow in a tube or over a surface by external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind. In contrast, convection is called free (or natural) convection if the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces induced by density differences due to the variation of temperature in the fluid. Lecture 1 10

11. Forced and Free Convection Lecture 1 11 The cooling of a boiled egg by forced and natural convection.

12. Newton’s law of cooling The rate of heat transfer by convection is determined from Newton’s law of cooling, expressed as Lecture 1 12 where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient, A is the surface area through which heat transfer takes place, Ts is the surface temperature, and T f is bulk fluid temperature away from the surface.

13. Unlike conduction and convection, heat transfer by radiation can occur between two bodies, even when they are separated by a medium colder than both of them. Radiation Lecture 1 13

14. Radiation Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules. The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute temperature T s is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as where A is the surface area and  = 5.67 * 10- 8 W/m 2 · K 4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant. The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a blackbody, and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation. Lecture 1 14

15. Emissivity,  The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperatures and is expressed as where  is the emissivity of the surface. The property emissivity, whose value is in the range 0    1, is a measure of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody for which  = 1. Lecture 1 15

16. Emissivity,  Lecture 1 16

17. Absorptivity,  Another important radiation property of a surface is its absorptivity, , which is the fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface that is absorbed by the surface. Its value is in the range 0    1. A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it. That is, a blackbody is a perfect absorber (  = 1) as well as a perfect emitter (  = 1). In general, both  and  of a surface depend on the temperature and the wavelength of the radiation. Kirchhoff’s law of radiation states that the emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface are equal at the same temperature and wavelength. the average absorptivity of a surface is taken to be equal to its average emissivity.  =  Lecture 1 17

18. Absorpitivity The rate at which a surface absorbs radiation is determined from where Q inc is the rate at which radiation is incident on the surface and  is the absorptivity of the surface. For opaque (nontransparent) surfaces, the portion of incident radiation that is not absorbed by the surface is reflected back. Lecture 1 18

19. Absorption and Emission of Radiation 19 Energy out = Energy in Emitted energy/Incident energy = Emissivity = .

20. THANK YOU Lecture 1 20