2. STUDY GUIDE UNIT 3 This unit focused on developing the students’ understanding of the relationship between force, mass and the motion of objects. Students explored the relationship between velocity and acceleration. Students explained and predicted how simple machines make our lives easier.

3. S8P3a. Determine the relationship between velocity and acceleration. S8P3b. Demonstrate the effect of balanced and unbalanced forces on an object in terms of gravity, inertia, and friction. S8P3c. Demonstrate the effect of simple machines (lever, inclined plane, pulley, wedge, screw, and wheel and axle) on work. UNIT 3 Standards

4. S8P3a. Determine the relationship between velocity and acceleration. CHAPTER 9-TEXTBOOK page 328 – 331 S8P3b. Demonstrate the effect of balanced and unbalanced forces on an object in terms of gravity, inertia, and friction. CHAPTER 10 Textbook page 366 – 369 S8P3c. Demonstrate the effect of simple machines (lever, inclined plane, pulley, wedge, screw, and wheel and axle) on work. CHAPTER 12 Textbook page 436 – 439

6. 5 History of Work Before engines and motors were invented, people had to do things like lifting or pushing heavy loads by hand. Using an animal could help, but what they really needed were some clever ways to either make work easier or faster.

7. 6 What is work? In science, the word work has a different meaning than you may be familiar with. The scientific definition of work is: using a force to move an object a distance (when both the force and the motion of the object are in the same direction.)

8. 7 Work or Not? According to the scientific definition, what is work and what is not? –a teacher lecturing to her class –a mouse pushing a piece of cheese with its nose across the floor

9. 8

10. 9 What’s work? A scientist delivers a speech to an audience of his peers. A body builder lifts 350 pounds above his head. A mother carries her baby from room to room. A father pushes a baby in a carriage. A woman carries a 20 kg grocery bag to her car?

11. 10 What’s work? NoA scientist delivers a speech to an audience of his peers. No YesA body builder lifts 350 pounds above his head. Yes NoA mother carries her baby from room to room. No YesA father pushes a baby in a carriage. Yes NoA woman carries a 20 km grocery bag to her car? No

12. 11 Formula for work Work = Force x Distance The unit of force is newtons The unit of distance is meters The unit of work is newton-meters One newton-meter is equal to one joule So, the unit of work is a joule

13. 12 W=FD Work = Force x Distance Calculate: If a man pushes a concrete block 10 meters with a force of 20 N, how much work has he done?

14. 13 W=FD Work = Force x Distance 200 joules Calculate: If a man pushes a concrete block 10 meters with a force of 20 N, how much work has he done? 200 joules (W = 20N x 10m)

15. 14 Power Power is the rate at which work is done. *Power = Work * /Time * * (force x distance) The unit of power is the watt.

16. 15 Check for Understanding 1. Two physics students, Ben and Bonnie, are in the weightlifting room. Bonnie lifts the 50 kg barbell over her head (approximately.60 m) 10 times in one minute; Ben lifts the 50 kg barbell the same distance over his head 10 times in 10 seconds. Which student does the most work? Which student delivers the most power? Explain your answers.

17. 16 Ben and Bonnie do the same amount of work; they apply the same force to lift the same barbell the same distance above their heads. Yet, Ben is the most powerful since he does the same work in less time. Power and time are inversely proportional.

18. 17 Simple Machines Ancient people invented simple machines that would help them overcome resistive forces and allow them to do the desired work against those forces.

19. 18 Simple Machines The six simple machines are: –Lever –Wheel and Axle –Pulley –Inclined Plane –Wedge –Screw

20. 19 Simple Machines A machine is a device that helps make work easier to perform by accomplishing one or more of the following functions: –transferring a force from one place to another, –changing the direction of a force, –increasing the magnitude of a force, or –increasing the distance or speed of a force.

21. 20 Mechanical Advantage It is useful to think about a machine in terms of the input force (the force you apply) and the output force (force which is applied to the task). When a machine takes a small input force and increases the magnitude of the output force, a mechanical advantage has been produced.

22. 21 Mechanical Advantage Mechanical advantage is the ratio of output force divided by input force. If the output force is bigger than the input force, a machine has a mechanical advantage greater than one. If a machine increases an input force of 10 pounds to an output force of 100 pounds, the machine has a mechanical advantage (MA) of 10. In machines that increase distance instead of force, the MA is the ratio of the output distance and input distance. MA = output/input

23. 22 Efficiency We said that the input force times the distance equals the output force times distance, or:We said that the input force times the distance equals the output force times distance, or: Input Force x Distance = Output Force x Distance However, some output force is lost due to friction. The comparison of work input to work output is called efficiency.The comparison of work input to work output is called efficiency. No machine has 100 percent efficiency due to friction.No machine has 100 percent efficiency due to friction.

24. 23 No machine can increase both the magnitude and the distance of a force at the same time.

25. 24 The Lever A lever is a rigid bar that rotates around a fixed point called the fulcrum. The bar may be either straight or curved. In use, a lever has both an effort (or applied) force and a load (resistant force).

26. 25 The 3 Classes of Levers The class of a lever is determined by the location of the effort force and the load relative to the fulcrum.

27. Levers You can use a mechanism to move something more easily. Force Multiplier force you produce is bigger than the force you apply Mechanical Advantage 3 types = Effort Load =

28. 27 To find the MA of a lever, divide the output force by the input force, or divide the length of the resistance arm by the length of the effort arm.

29. Class 1 The force you apply is on the opposite side of the fulcrum to the force you produce.

30. 29 First Class Lever In a first-class lever the fulcrum is located at some point between the effort and resistance forces. – Common examples of first-class levers include crowbars, scissors, pliers, tin snips and seesaws. –A first-class lever always changes the direction of force (I.e. a downward effort force on the lever results in an upward movement of the resistance force).

31. Class 2 The fulcrum is at one end. You apply force at the other end and the force you produce is in the middle.

32. 31 Second Class Lever With a second-class lever, the load is located between the fulcrum and the effort force. Common examples of second-class levers include nut crackers, wheel barrows, doors, and bottle openers. A second-class lever does not change the direction of force. When the fulcrum is located closer to the load than to the effort force, an increase in force (mechanical advantage) results.

33. Class 3 apply the force in the middle and the force you produce is at the opposite end. They reduce the force you apply, giving you much greater control.

34. 33 Third Class Lever With a third-class lever, the effort force is applied between the fulcrum and the resistance force. –Examples of third-class levers include tweezers, hammers, and shovels. –A third-class lever does not change the direction of force; third-class levers always produce a gain in speed and distance and a corresponding decrease in force.

35. 34 Wheel and Axle The wheel and axle is a simple machine consisting of a large wheel rigidly secured to a smaller wheel or shaft, called an axle. When either the wheel or axle turns, the other part also turns. One full revolution of either part causes one full revolution of the other part.

36. Wheel Wheels can multiply speed/ distance or force. The axle turns a short distance (blue arrow) leverage of the wheel means the outer rim turns much further (red arrow) in the same time.

37. Pulleys Two or more wheels and a loop of rope around them creates a lifting machine. Each time the rope wraps around the wheels, you create more lifting power or mechanical advantage.

38. 37 Pulley A pulley consists of a grooved wheel that turns freely in a frame called a block. A pulley can be used to simply change the direction of a force or to gain a mechanical advantage, depending on how the pulley is arranged. A pulley is said to be a fixed pulley if it does not rise or fall with the load being moved. A fixed pulley changes the direction of a force; however, it does not create a mechanical advantage. A moveable pulley rises and falls with the load that is being moved. A single moveable pulley creates a mechanical advantage; however, it does not change the direction of a force. The mechanical advantage of a moveable pulley is equal to the number of ropes that support the moveable pulley.

39. Inclined plane -ramp You use less force, but you need to pull/push a longer distance you use the same amount of energy in each case

40. 39 Inclined Plane A wagon trail on a steep hill will often traverse back and forth to reduce the slope experienced by a team pulling a heavily loaded wagon. This same technique is used today in modern freeways which travel winding paths through steep mountain passes.

41. 40 Inclined Plane An inclined plane is an even sloping surface. The inclined plane makes it easier to move a weight from a lower to higher elevation.

42. 41 Inclined Plane The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane is equal to the length of the slope divided by the height of the inclined plane. While the inclined plane produces a mechanical advantage, it does so by increasing the distance through which the force must move.

43. 42 Although it takes less force for car A to get to the top of the ramp, all the cars do the same amount of work. A B C

44. 43 Wedge The wedge is a modification of the inclined plane. Wedges are used as either separating or holding devices. A wedge can either be composed of one or two inclined planes. A double wedge can be thought of as two inclined planes joined together with their sloping surfaces outward.

45. 44 Screw The screw is also a modified version of the inclined plane. While this may be somewhat difficult to visualize, it may help to think of the threads of the screw as a type of circular ramp (or inclined plane).

46. 45 MA of an screw can be calculated by dividing the number of turns per inch.

47. 46 Practice Questions 1. Explain who is doing more work and why: a bricklayer carrying bricks and placing them on the wall of a building being constructed, or a project supervisor observing and recording the progress of the workers from an observation booth. 2. How much work is done in pushing an object 7.0 m across a floor with a force of 50 N and then pushing it back to its original position? How much power is used if this work is done in 20 sec? 3. Using a single fixed pulley, how heavy a load could you lift ?

48. 47 Practice Questions 4. Give an example of a machine in which friction is both an advantage and a disadvantage. 5. Why is it not possible to have a machine with 100% efficiency? 6. What is effort force? What is work input? Explain the relationship between effort force, effort distance, and work input.

49. 48 Practice Questions 1. Explain who is doing more work and why: a bricklayer carrying bricks and placing them on the wall of a building being constructed, or a project supervisor observing and recording the progress of the workers from an observation booth. Work is defined as a force applied to an object, moving that object a distance in the direction of the applied force. The bricklayer is doing more work. 2. How much work is done in pushing an object 7.0 m across a floor with a force of 50 N and then pushing it back to its original position? How much power is used if this work is done in 20 sec? Work = 7 m X 50 N X 2 = 700 N-m or J; Power = 700 N-m/20 sec = 35 W 3. Using a single fixed pulley, how heavy a load could you lift?Since a fixed pulley has a mechanical advantage of one, it will only change the direction of the force applied to it. You would be able to lift a load equal to your own weight, minus the negative effects of friction.

50. 49 Practice Questions 4. Give an example of a machine in which friction is both an advantage and a disadvantage. One answer might be the use of a car jack. Advantage of friction: It allows a car to be raised to a desired height without slipping. Disadvantage of friction: It reduces efficiency. 5. Why is it not possible to have a machine with 100% efficiency? Friction lowers the efficiency of a machine. Work output is always less than work input, so an actual machine cannot be 100% efficient. 6. What is effort force? What is work input? Explain the relationship between effort force, effort distance, and work input. The effort force is the force applied to a machine. Work input is the work done on a machine. The work input of a machine is equal to the effort force times the distance over which the effort force is exerted.

51. FORCES Forces are pushes or pulls (a combination is a twist). Objects are stationary when forces are balanced gravity is always acting but we don’t keep falling due to a support force Forces can be measured using a Newton meter.

52. BALANCED FORCES An unbalanced forces cause changes to objects motion (speed or direction), or shape. If a force acts on a stationary object and causes motion, the object has gained kinetic (movement) energy. Friction will stop the object moving. Types of force: Gravity Electrostatic Tension – the force in rope, etcMagnetism Friction – the force that opposes motion Support Bouyancy – in the water Lift – in the air (planes/birds)

53. CONTACT FORCES Some forces only act on contact, others can act from a distance. Which are which? ContactDistance Gravity Electrostatic Tension Magnetism Friction Support

54. FORCE PAIRS Forces act in pairs (e.g. thrust and friction, gravity and support). Force diagrams show the forces acting on an object and whether they are balanced or unbalanced. Arrow size represents force size if no measurements are available.

55. Force pairs What are the missing terms? Buoyancy Drag Thrust Weight

56. BALANCED OR UNBALANCED? Explain whether the forces in the following scenarios balanced or unbalanced. 1. The international space station is orbiting Earth at about 28,000kmhr -1. 2. A can is being crushed. 3. A car is travelling at a constant speed. 4. A skydiver has just jumped from a plane. 5. A car stays at 50kmhr -1 as it turns a corner.

57. UNBALANCED FORCES An unbalanced force (a net force) results in acceleration. The rate of acceleration depends on the mass of the object and force applied… Force = mass × acceleration (F = m × a). F ma

58. FORCE AND MOTION What happens when you apply (using a Newton meter) a small constant force to a trolley and time it over a set distance? Small constant force An unbalanced force causes acceleration. The trolley should accelerate because… Set distance

59. FORCE AND MOTION What happens when you apply (using a Newton meter) a small constant force to a trolley carrying a 1kg mass and time it over a set distance? Small constant force The larger the mass the slower the acceleration The trolley should accelerate but slower than previously because… Set distance 1Kg

60. FORCES AND ACCELERATION Given the formula F = ma try the following questions. 1. What are the names and units of F, m and a? 2. Complete the table…. 3. The rider and cycle are 150kg: a. What is the Nett force? b. What is the cyclist’s acceleration? 4. A bike accelerates at 10ms -2 using a force of 6000N. The rider is 70kg. What is the mass of the bike? FmA a.9kg0.5ms -2 6N0.2kgb. c.800g1.5ms -2 350Nd.15ms -2 e.1200kg0.015ms -2 800N 150N

61. WEIGHT FORCE Weight is a force. It is therefore measured in… An object’s weight depends on two things… Newtons (N) Gravity varies depending where you are 10ms -2 or 10N/Kg on Earth Mass does not vary measured in Kg A man with mass of 75Kg on earth weighs 750N BUT on the moon he weighs 125N

62. FRICTION Friction is a contact force that opposes motion, it causes heat, damage, wear and slowing Friction can be reduced by… lubrication, streamlining (aerodynamics), slowing down, smoothing surfaces

63. SPEED Speed is the distance that an object travels in a period of time. d tv Units are meters and seconds (and therefore meters per second). However, sometimes km/hr is more sensible. A cyclist travels 25 km in ½ an hour. What is their speed- in kmhr -1 - in ms -1 = 25km/0.5hr= 50km/hr = 25000m/1800s= 13  m/s

64. DISTANCE/TIME GRAPHS A car takes 1.5 minutes to travel 500m down a busy road. It stops at lights for 30 seconds, then continues on for 1 minute as it goes another 1km. Plot this on a distance/time graph. Time (min) 123 Distance (km) 0.5 1 1.5 Using the distance/time graph: 1.What is the total distance traveled? 2. In what part of the trip is the car going the fastest? 3. What is the fastest speed? = 1.5 km = part 3 v = Δd / Δt v = 1km/1min v = 1000m/60s v = 16  m/s Steepest section is fastest Δd = 1km Δt = 1min In a distance/time graph the slope of the line = the speed of the object.

65. SPEED QUESTIONS What would these look like on a distance/time graph? 1. stopped 2. slow 3. fast 4. accelerating

66. ACCELERATION Acceleration is the change in speed in an object in a period of time. Δ vΔ v aΔ tΔ t Units ms -2 It takes a cyclist 20 seconds to go from a standing start to 14m/s. What is their acceleration? What is 14m/s in km/hr? a = Δv/Δta = 14m/s / 20sa = 0.7ms -2 = 14 × 60s × 60min  1000m = 50.4km/hr

67. SPEED/TIME GRAPHS A runner travels at 4m/s for 10 seconds, then stops suddenly for 5 seconds, then accelerates for 5 seconds to get to 8m/s and continues for 10 seconds. Plot this on a speed/time graph. Time (sec) 102030 Speed (m/s) 4 8 Using the speed/time graph: In what part of the trip is the runner going the fastest? What is the acceleration in part 4? = part 5 In a speed/time graph the slope of the line = the acceleration of the object. a = Δv/Δt a = 8m/s/5s a = 1.6ms -2

68. ACCELERATION QUESTIONS What would these look like on a speed/time graph? 1. stopped 2. slow 3. fast 4. accelerating