1. Yarmuk August 15-20, 636 Strategic Context Beginning in 622, Emperor Heraclius revitalizes the Byzantine Empire and conquers the Fertile Crescent of modern Palestine, Iran, Iraq and Syria from the empire’s longtime foes, the Sassanids. A decade later, Khald ibn al-Walid leads a dramatic invasion of these newly conquered lands. He destroys a Byzantine army and captures Damascus in 635 before another army can be hastily assembled, led by Vahan, to chase the Rashiduns out. Now the Rashiduns make their stand south of Damascus with their backs to the Arabian Desert; they are united by purpose and know that this could be their final chance to break out of the desert. Stakes + A Byzantine victory would reverse the gains of the Rashiduns and push them back into the Arabian Desert. + A Rashidun victory would establish control over the Fertile Crescent and permit further conquest to impose Muslim authority. By Jonathan Webb, 2009 To view animation on PC: hit F5 To view animation on Mac: hit ⌘ + enter

2. Yarmuk, 636 Strength  Byzantines  Well  Rashiduns  Religiously motivated  Vahan  16,000 infantry  25,000 infantry  Khalid ibn al-Walid By Jonathan Webb, 2009  15,000 cavalry  8,000 cavalry

3. Western Eurasia c. 600

4. Rashiduns (Khalid) Byzantines (Vahan) The battlefield is relatively flat and open, but contained on nearly all sides: the dry, steep Wadi ur-Ruqqad to the north, Nahr al-Allan tributary of the Yarmuk River to the west, and other gorges and river to the south and east off map. Possible egress routes include a bridge over the Wadi ur-Ruqqad to the north, ford across the Nahr al-Allan to the southwest, and open space to the northeast. Wadi ur-Ruqqad Nahr al-Allan Plain of Yarmuk

5. Khalid deploys his force in four separate divisions that operate largely on their own. They are backed by the Rashidun cavalry: one for each flank, one for the center and another kept in reserve. Vahan deploys his force similarly in four separate division except that they are larger and each boast their own cavalry units. Vahan also keeps a sizeable cavalry reserve to the rear. The first day of battle begins with a series of individual duels, which are dominated by the Rashidun champions. Vahan ends the slaughter of his officers and his force’s morale by sending his frontline infantry to probe the Rashidun front. Vahan knows that he must use sheer weight of numbers along a crowded, broad front to achieve at least one breakthrough which can then be exploited. Khalid recognizes the inferiority of his force and must exhaust the Byzantines before even considering an attack. Vahan’s limited offensive features only moderate effort on both sides before dusk ends the action. Rashiduns (Khalid ibn al-Walid) 16,000 infantry 8,000 cavalry Byzantines (Vahan) 25,000 infantry 15,000 cavalry Symbol guide Byzantines (Vahan) Landmarks Rashiduns (Khalid) Wadi ur-Ruqqad Nahr al-Allan Plain of Yarmuk ByzantinesRashidunsInfantryCavalryCamp

6. On the second day, Vahan launches a resolute assault; he pins the Rashidun center while aggressively attacking the Rashidun wings. Some infantry on these wings retreat to camp under pressure of the Byzantine attack. This forces each Rashidun wing to commit its cavalry in a counterattack but they too retreat to camp, critically weakening both Rashidun wings. The Rashidun soldiers’ wives berate and throw rocks at those who shamefully arrive at camp until they return to battle; they rejoin the battle just in time to save their respective wings from complete destruction. Khalid then commits his cavalry reserve to restore his right wing before shifting it over to restore his left wing. The Rashidun center counterattacks in concert with these restorative attacks and succeeds in nudging the Byzantine center back. Heavy but inconclusive fighting ensues along the original front until dusk begins to fall and Vahan must withdraw. Rashiduns (Khalid ibn al-Walid) 16,000 infantry 8,000 cavalry Byzantines (Vahan) 25,000 infantry 15,000 cavalry Symbol guide Landmarks Wadi ur-Ruqqad Nahr al-Allan Plain of Yarmuk ByzantinesRashidunsInfantryCavalryCamp Byzantines (Vahan) Rashiduns (Khalid)

7. On the third day, Vahan launches another determined attack; this time he again pins the Rashidun center but focuses on the weakened Rashidun right wing and leaves their left wing unmolested. Khalid rejoices that his left wing can rest but must again commit his cavalry reserve merely to reestablish the original front. Casualties pile up on both sides but are significantly higher in the Byzantine ranks. Dusk and mutual exhaustion again end the day’s action. Rashiduns (Khalid ibn al-Walid) 16,000 infantry 8,000 cavalry Byzantines (Vahan) 25,000 infantry 15,000 cavalry Symbol guide Landmarks Wadi ur-Ruqqad Nahr al-Allan Plain of Yarmuk ByzantinesRashidunsInfantryCavalryCamp Byzantines (Vahan) Rashiduns (Khalid)

8. On the fourth day, Vahan again seeks to shatter the Rashidun front by breaking through at one point and then exploiting another once Khalid commits his reserves. Vahan attacks with his two left wing divisions while advancing with his two right wing divisions, which are to wait until Khalid commits his reserves before launching their own attack. Vahan’s plan begins well; his left-center division pushes through the opposing Rashidun division and is only contained by cavalry reserves. Sensing the unfolding disaster immediately, Khalid orders a spoiling attack on the Byzantine two right wing divisions to throw them off balance and delay any action by them. The desired effect is achieved as these divisions retreat a short distance and are in no state to carry out an attack. The situation is dangerous for Khalid as his entire force is engaged against a superior force. Through fierce fighting, Khalid is able to restore the original front on his right. Meanwhile, the success of the Rashidun left wing divisions is ended when the Byzantines deploy their archers en masse. The Rashidun archers are outranged and can do nothing but retreat. This is known as the “Day of Lost Eyes” for the 700 Rashiduns who lose an eye in this arrow barrage. The Byzantine right wing divisions quickly exploit this disorder and attack but they are also tied down in a slogging match which is balanced out when the Rashidun women take up arms and join the battle. The fighting continues until dusk and exhaustion again force a Byzantine disengagement. Rashiduns (Khalid ibn al-Walid) 16,000 infantry 8,000 cavalry Byzantines (Vahan) 25,000 infantry 15,000 cavalry Symbol guide Landmarks Wadi ur-Ruqqad Nahr al-Allan Plain of Yarmuk ByzantinesRashidunsInfantryCavalryCamp Byzantines (Vahan) Rashiduns (Khalid)

9. Both sides take the fifth day to rest, masked by futile negotiations and challenges. The ranks of both forces have thinned greatly but is more noticeable in the Byzantine force which has been on the offensive, as is often the rule. On this day, Khalid decides that the Byzantine morale and ranks have been weakened enough to launch his first and hopefully only attack. He gathers all of his cavalry into a single, powerful strike group. Vahan still possesses fresh cavalry reserves which have yet to engage in battle. Whether they are held back for the chance to completely annihilate the Rashiduns in the pursuit of an anticipated battlefield victory or remain static due to major problems in the Byzantine chain of command is unclear. Rashiduns (Khalid ibn al-Walid) 16,000 infantry 8,000 cavalry Byzantines (Vahan) 25,000 infantry 15,000 cavalry Symbol guide Landmarks Wadi ur-Ruqqad Nahr al-Allan Plain of Yarmuk ByzantinesRashidunsInfantryCavalryCamp Byzantines (Vahan) Rashiduns (Khalid)

10. In the night, Khalid detaches a unit to guard the bridge over the wadi, in this case an abnormally steep, dry river. Khalid opens his assault by pinning the Byzantine front with his infantry and sweeping around Vahan’s left flank. Vahan also gathers a large cavalry group in reserve but it is unprepared to respond decisively at the time of attack and so the Byzantine left division disintegrates, exposing the left-center division’s flank. Inconclusive fighting continues among the infantry while the opposing cavalry engage in the Byzantine rear. The determined Rashidun cavalry are more mobile and harass the heavier Byzantine cavalry until they flee the battle altogether. The Byzantine infantry fight valiantly but can do nothing against assailment from the front, left and now rear; they begin to disengage and retreat. The Byzantines are dismayed to find their escape route blocked by a Rashidun force. They briefly attempt to dislodge them but are unable to and must flee the pursuing main Rashidun force. The Byzantines are bottled into a confined space where they fight savagely but eventually try to escape across the wadi in desperation. Many do not make it across. Rashiduns (Khalid ibn al-Walid) 16,000 infantry 8,000 cavalry Byzantines (Vahan) 25,000 infantry 15,000 cavalry Symbol guide Landmarks Wadi ur-Ruqqad Nahr al-Allan Plain of Yarmuk ByzantinesRashidunsInfantryCavalryCamp Byzantines (Vahan) Rashiduns (Khalid)

11. Yarmuk, 636 Casualties & Aftermath Byzantines:Rashiduns: 18,000 or 45% 4,000 or 16% By Jonathan Webb, 2009 Emperor Heraclius was understandably distraught by the decisive defeat which undid his conquests of the previous decade. The Rashiduns conquered Palestine and Syria soon after the defeat, and eventually the prized Byzantine province of Egypt. This battle marked only the beginning of the spread of Islam into Asia, Africa, and Europe.

12. The Art of Battle: Animated Battle Maps http://www.theartofbattle.com By Jonathan Webb, 2009