1. http://www.accuweather.com/en/us/national/severe-weather-maps

2. Thunderstorms

3.  Produced by cumulonimbus clouds and are accompanied by lightning and thunder.  Occurs when the atmosphere becomes unstable—when a vertically displaced air parcel becomes buoyant and rises on its own.  The ideal conditions include warm, moist air near the surface and a large change in temperature with height (large lapse rate)

4. Thunderstorm Climatology

5.  Some can extend as high as 40,000-65,000 ft!  The are capable of releases tremendous amounts of energy (equivalent to several hydrogen bombs)  Some are associated with tornados, heavy rain, and hail.  Some of winds gusting to over 100 mph!

6.  Air mass thunderstorms—usually harmless and short-lived (less than an hour).  Severe thunderstorms – can last for hours and can become very strong. Associated with strong winds, tornadoes and hail. Examples include: supercell storms and squall lines.

7.  We understood very little about the inside of thunderstorms before the famous Thunderstorm Project of the late 1940s when armored aircraft (P-61) were flown in thunderstorms in Ohio and Florida.

8. Hail Damage! P-61 Squadron

9. Fig. 10-1, p. 265 Single Cell Air Mass Thunderstorm

10. Air Mass thunderstorms are SUICIDAL. The cool downdraft kills the updraft…that is why they don’t live long enough to become severe.

11. Major Thunderstorm Structures Cirrus Anvil, Gust Front, Updraft, Downdraft updraft

14. Roll or Arcus Cloud

18.  Can have several cells at various stages in their life cycle  Updrafts of 2-20 knots  Cells generally 3-6 miles across Radar Image of Air Mass Thunderstorm

20.  Can last for hours and produce strong winds, large hail, flash flooding, tornadoes.  Most important types are supercell storms, squall lines, and bow echo storms.

21. Supercell Thunderstorm

22.  One giant updraft that can have upward speeds as high as 60-100 mph  Large size: 30-50 miles in diameter.  The large updraft is often rotating: called a mesocyclone.

24. Fig. 10-37, p. 291

25. Fig. 10-35, p. 290 largest tornado on record

27. Fig. 10-4, p. 268

30. Fig. 10-32, p. 288

31. Fig. 10-33, p. 289

32. Annual Number of Tornadoes per State (upper number)

33. Average Number of Tornadoes by Month in US

34. Table 10-2, p. 288

36. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xCI1u05KD_s http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iJ26HnnUuO0 Joplin Tornado

37.  Severe thunderstorms associated with mesocyclones (strongest tornadoes)  Weaker thunderstorms associated with fronts and shear lines (weaker ones)

38. Origin of rotation in the mesocyclone Why mesocyclones? Why is wind shear important?

39. Shear Rotation

40. Knowing the difference of shear vs. rotation is vital when determining whether or not a thunderstorm will produce a tornado or another hazard such as damaging straight line winds. Shear is simply a rapid variation in wind speed or direction over a short distance. Most shear can be determined by observing cloud motion that is in different directions. These different cloud motions can occur at the same height (horizontal shear) or at different heights (vertical shear). Rotation is a circular motion (usually counterclockwise motion in thunderstorms). Some types of rotation can occur in all thunderstorms. However, if the rotation occurs in a non-supercell thunderstorm, it is usually very shallow and short-lived. To determine whether or not cloud motion is rotation or shear, one needs to carefully watch the clouds for a few minutes. Pick a few distinctive cloud elements and watch long enough to assess if the motion is circular. Do the cloud elements revolve around a central point? If so, its rotation. If clouds are seen moving in two different directions but no circular motion is observed, it is just shear. A storm must be rotating in order for a tornado to occur.

42. Fig. 10-34, p. 289 Stepped Art

43. Angular momentum= mvr=constant

44. Fig. 10-40, p. 293 Weaker Tornadoes on Fronts and Shear Lines Another way to get rotation

45. NW F3 Tornado

46. A Tornado Almost Took Out Bill Gates!

47. Large Hail

48. Hail Occurs in Strong Thunderstorms with Very Large Upward Velocities

49.  Range in size from 0.2 to 6 inches in diameter.  Large hailstones are often characterized by alternating layers of clear and opaque ice, caused by cycles of riming and freezing.  Hail produces substantial damage to buildings, cars, and crops. Major agricultural problem in areas of the midwest and some overseas locations with strong thunderstorms.

52. Average Number of Days with Hail

55.  MACROBURST: A large downburst with its outburst winds extending greater than 2.5 miles horizontal dimension. Damaging winds, lasting 5 to 30 minutes, could be as high as 134 mph.  MICROBURST: A small downburst with its outburst, damaging winds extending 2.5 miles or less. In spite of its small horizontal scale, an intense microburst could induce damaging winds as high as 168 mph.

56. Fig. 10-14, p. 273

62. Research by NCAR and collaborators in the 1980s uncovered the deadly one-two punch of microbursts: aircraft level off when they encounter headwinds, then find themselves pushed to the ground by intense downdrafts and tailwinds.

63. Fig. 10-15, p. 273

64. Stepped Art

65. Eastern Air Lines 66 June 24, 1975 New York – Kennedy Airport 112 killed 12 injured Crashed while landing Boeing 727

66. Pan Am 759 July 9, 1982 New Orleans Airport 145 passenger/crew killed 8 on ground killed Crashed after takeoff Boeing 727

67. Delta 191 August 2, 1985 Dallas-Fort Worth Airport Crashed on landing 8 of 11 crew members and 128 of the 152 passengers killed, 1 person on ground killed Lockheed L-1011

68. USAir 1016 July 2, 1994 Charlotte/Douglas Airport Crashed on landing 37 killed 25 injured McDonnell Douglas DC-9

69. August 1, 1983 the strongest microburst recorded at an airport was observed at Andrews Air Force Base in Washington DC. The wind speeds may have exceeded 150 mph in this microburst. The peak gust was recorded at 211 PM – 7 minutes after Air Force One, with the President on board, landed on the same runway.

70. Wisconsin on the 4th of July, 1977, with winds that were estimated to exceed 115 mph, and completely flattening thousands of acres of forest Macroburst Microburst

71. Tornado Spotters Guide http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZCztW1xpbA0

72.  In weather radars, supercell storms are usually apparent as hooked echos.  The mesocyclone can be seen with the Doppler winds..

73. Fig. 10-36, p. 290

76. Origin of rotation in the mesocyclone Why mesocyclones? Why is wind shear important?

78.  They all grow in environments with large vertical instability.  But they also grow in an environment of large wind shear—wind changing significantly with height. What difference does that make?

79. Need to stop the rotation of cold air in front of storm

80.  Long, linear lines of strong thunderstorms  Strong narrow convective line, followed by a wide region of stratiform precipitation  Mainly in the central and eastern U.S.

82. Fig. 10-6, p. 269

84.  Can occur when a squall line or group of thunderstorms “bow out”  Can produce strong (60-100 mph) straight-line (non-rotating) winds.

85. Fig. 10-16, p. 273

87.  Winds can reach 85-100 mph  Can produce extensive damage

93. Fig. 10-23, p. 280

97. Mean Annual Lightning Strikes

99. Lightning Kills!

100. Lightning is attracted to this Lightning Rod Metal Cleat Shoes…good grounding

102. Lightning can occur cloud to cloud, cloud to ground, cloud to air, or within a cloud

103.  The majority of lightning occurs within clouds…only about 20% between cloud and ground.  The lightning strokes heats a narrow channel to roughly 54,000 F—much hotter than the surface of the sun. Causes air to expand explosively—producing thunder.  Light from lightning moves at the speed of light (186,000 miles per second), while sound of thunder only moves at 1/5 mile per second.  Can use the difference to determine how far the lightning stroke is: for every 5 second difference-one mile away

105. Before Lightning Strikes: Development of Areas of Charge in Clouds and Surface

106.  NOT WELL UNDERSTOOD!  Charge separation appears to depend on strong updrafts, ice crystals, and supercooled water.  Large ice crystals fall rapidly and collect the smaller, slower, supercooled water drops in their path. The drops freeze on the surface of the falling ice crystals, building graupel particles.  When graupel particles fall through supercooled water and ice crystals, they acquire one charge, and the water-ice mix acquires the opposite charge. Or so we think!

107. Typical Cloud to Cloud Lightning Stroke (a) Negative charge descends the cloud in a series of steps (roughly 50-100 long)—called a “stepped leader”

108. Typical Cloud to Cloud Lightning Stroke (b) As the stepped leader approaches the surface, positive charges moves upwards to meet it. When the potential gradient (volts per meter) increases to about one million volts per meter, the insulating properties of the air begins to break down

109. Typical Cloud to Cloud Lightning Stroke (negative lightning) (c) With break down, a return stroke begins, with negative charge surging downward in the cloud.

110.  Some lightning originates in the cirrus anvil or upper parts near the top of the thunderstorm, where a high positive charge resides.  In this case, the descending stepped leader carries a positive charge while its subsequent ground streamers will have a negative charge.  These bolts are known as "positive lightning" because there is a net transfer of positive charge from the cloud to the ground.  Positive lightning makes up less than 5% of all strikes. However, positive lightning is particularly dangerous for several reasons.  Since it originates in the upper levels of a storm, the amount of air it must move through to reach the ground usually much greater. Therefore, its electric field typically is much stronger than a negative strike.  Its flash duration is longer, and its peak charge and potential can be ten times greater than a negative strike; as much as 300,000 amperes and one billion volts!

111. Positive Lightning!

114.  Cars are very safe!  Stay away from trees!

115. Figure 2, p. 282

116.  No more golf!  If out in the open go to a low spot and crouch down—the lightning crouch!

117. Fig. 10-24, p. 281