2. AP Biology Lab Review

3. AP Biology Lab 1: Enzyme Activity  Concepts:  Enzyme  Structure (active site, allosteric site)  Lower activation energy, speed up rate  Substrate  product  Proteins denature (structure/binding site changes)

4. AP Biology Lab 1: Enzyme Activity  Description:  Determine which factors affect the rate of enzyme reaction  H 2 O 2  H 2 O + O 2  Measure rate of O 2 production catalase

5. AP Biology Lab 1: Enzyme Activity  Conclusions:  Enzyme reaction rate affected by:  pH (acids, bases)  Temperature  Substrate concentration  Enzyme concentration  Ionic conditions Calculate Rate of Reaction

6. AP Biology

7. ESSAY 2000 The effects of pH and temperature were studied for an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. The following results were obtained. a. How do (1) temperature and (2) pH affect the activity of this enzyme? In your answer, include a discussion of the relationship between the structure and the function of this enzyme, as well as a discussion of ho structure and function of enzymes are affected by temperature and pH. b. Describe a controlled experiment that could have produced the data shown for either temperature or pH. Be sure to state the hypothesis that was tested here. Lab 1: Enzyme Activity

8. AP Biology Lab 2: Diffusion & Osmosis (Lab Two)  Concepts:  Selectively permeable membrane (cell membrane!)  Diffusion (high  low concentration)  Osmosis (aquaporins)  Water potential (  )   = pressure potential (  P ) + solute potential (  S )  Solutions:  Hypertonic  hypotonic  isotonic

9. AP Biology Lab 2: Diffusion & Osmosis

10. AP Biology Lab 2: Diffusion & Osmosis  Description:  Surface area and cell size vs. rate of diffusion  Cell modeling: dialysis tubing + various solutions (distilled water, sucrose, salt, glucose, protein)  Identify concentrations of sucrose solution and solute concentration of potato cores  Observe osmosis in onion cells (effect of salt water)

11. AP Biology Lab 2: Diffusion & Osmosis

12. AP Biology Potato Cores in Different Concentrations of Sucrose

13. AP Biology Lab 2: Diffusion & Osmosis  Conclusions  Water moves from high water potential (  ) (hypotonic=low solute) to low water potential (  ) (hypertonic=high solute)  Solute concentration & size of molecule affect movement across selectively permeable membrane

15. AP Biology

16. Lab 2: Diffusion & Osmosis ESSAY 1992 A laboratory assistant prepared solutions of 0.8 M, 0.6 M, 0.4 M, and 0.2 M sucrose, but forgot to label them. After realizing the error, the assistant randomly labeled the flasks containing these four unknown solutions as flask A, flask B, flask C, and flask D. Design an experiment, based on the principles of diffusion and osmosis, that the assistant could use to determine which of the flasks contains each of the four unknown solutions. Include in your answer: a.a description of how you would set up and perform the experiment; b.the results you would expect from your experiment; and c.an explanation of those results based on the principles involved. Be sure to clearly state the principles addressed in your discussion.

17. AP Biology Lab 3: Mitosis  Concepts:  Cell Cycle (G1  S  G2  M)  Control of cell cycle (checkpoints)  Cyclins & cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)  1 cell forms two identical (clone) daughter cells  Phases:  interphase  prophase  metaphase  anaphase  telophase

18. AP Biology Lab 3: Mitosis

19. AP Biology Lab 3: Mitosis Count # cells in interphase, stages of mitosis

20. AP Biology Lab 3: Mitosis  Conclusions  Mitosis (PMAT!)  longest phase = interphase

21. AP Biology Lab 3: Mitosis

22. AP Biology Lab 3: Mitosis  Description:  How environment affects mitosis of plant roots  Effect of caffeine on root growth

23. AP Biology Labs 3 & 6: Mitosis vs Meiosis

24. AP Biology Lab 4: Cellular Respiration

25. AP Biology Lab 4: Cellular Respiration

26. AP Biology Lab 4: Cellular Respiration  Concepts:  Respiration  Measure rate of respiration by:  O 2 consumption  CO 2 production

27. AP Biology Lab 4: Cellular Respiration  Description:  Use respirometer  Measure rate of respiration (O 2 consumption) in various seeds  Factors tested:  Non-germinating seeds  Germinating seeds  Effect of temperature

28. AP Biology

29. Lab 4: Cellular Respiration  Conclusions:   temp =  respiration   germination =  respiration  Animal respiration > plant respiration   surface area =  respiration Calculate Rate

30. AP Biology Lab 4: Cellular Respiration

31. AP Biology

34. Lab 4: Cellular Respiration ESSAY 1990 The results below are measurements of cumulative oxygen consumption by germinating and dry seeds. Gas volume measurements were corrected for changes in temperature and pressure. a. Plot the results for the germinating seeds at 22°C and 10°C. b. Calculate the rate of oxygen consumption for the germinating seeds at 22°C, using the time interval between 10 and 20 minutes. c. Account for the differences in oxygen consumption observed between: 1. germinating seeds at 22°C and at 10°C 2. germinating seeds and dry seeds. d. Describe the essential features of an experimental apparatus that could be used to measure oxygen consumption by a small organism. Explain why each of these features is necessary. Cumulative Oxygen Consumed (mL) Time (minutes)010203040 Germinating seeds 22°C0.08.816.023.732.0 Dry Seeds (non-germinating) 22°C0.00.20.10.00.1 Germinating Seeds 10°C0.02.96.29.412.5 Dry Seeds (non-germinating) 10°C0.0 0.20.10.2

35. AP Biology Lab 5: Photosynthesis  Concepts:  Photosynthesis  6H 2 O + 6CO 2 + Light  C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2  Ways to measure the rate of photosynthesis:  Production of oxygen (O 2 )  Consumption of carbon dioxide (CO 2 )

36. AP Biology Lab 5: Photosynthesis  Description:  Paper chromatography to identify pigments  Floating disk technique  Leaf disks float in water  Gases can be drawn from out from leaf using syringe  leaf sinks  Photosynthesis  O 2 produced  bubbles form on leaf  leaf disk rises  Measure rate of photosynthesis by O 2 production  Factors tested: types of plants, light intensity, colors of leaves, pH of solutions

37. AP Biology Plant Pigments & Chromatography

38. Floating Disk Technique

40. AP Biology Lab 5: Photosynthesis  Concepts:  photosynthesis  Photosystems II, I  H 2 O split, ATP, NADPH  chlorophylls & other plant pigments  chlorophyll a  chlorophyll b  xanthophylls  carotenoids  experimental design  control vs. experimental

41. AP Biology

43. 2004 - 2005 Lab 6: Meiosis  Concepts  meiosis  meiosis 1  meiosis 2  crossing over  tetrad in prophase 1  Conclusions:  4:4 arrangement in ascospores  no crossover  any other arrangement  crossover  2:2:2:2 or 2:4:2

44. AP Biology Lab 6-Meiosis: Crossing over in Prophase I

45. AP Biology 2004 - 2005 Lab 6:Meiosis  crossing over in meiosis  further the gene is from centromere the greater number of crossovers  Counted spore crossing over in fungus, Sordaria  arrangement of ascospores-2/4/2, 4/4, or 2/2/2/2

46. AP Biology Lab 6: Meiosis  Observed crossing over in fungus (Sordaria)  Arrangement of ascospores

47. AP Biology Sordaria Analysis % crossover total crossover total offspring = distance from centromere % crossover 2 =

48. AP Biology Abnormal karyotype = Cancer

49. AP Biology Labs 3,6: Mitosis & Meiosis ESSAY 1987 Discuss the process of cell division in animals. Include a description of mitosis and cytokinesis, and of the other phases of the cell cycle. Do not include meiosis. ESSAY 2004 Meiosis reduces chromosome number and rearranges genetic information. a. Explain how the reduction and rearrangement are accomplished in meiosis. b. Several human disorders occur as a result of defects in the meiotic process. Identify ONE such chromosomal abnormality; what effects does it have on the phenotype of people with the disorder? Describe how this abnormality could result from a defect in meiosis. c. Production of offspring by parthenogenesis or cloning bypasses the typical meiotic process. Describe either parthenogenesis or cloning and compare the genomes of the offspring with those of the parents.

50. AP Biology Lab 7: Genetics (Fly Lab)

51. AP Biology Lab 7: Genetics (Fly Lab)  Description  Cross flies of known genotype for wing shape to observe inheritance of the trait  Conduct chi square analysis on results

52. AP Biology Lab 7: Genetics (Fly Lab)  Concepts  phenotype vs. genotype  dominant vs. recessive  P, F1, F2 generations  sex-linked  monohybrid cross  dihybrid cross  test cross  chi square

53. AP Biology Lab 7: Genetics (Fly Lab)  Conclusions: Can you solve this? Case 1 Mode of inheritance=________

54. AP Biology Now solve this one! Case 2 Mode of inheritance=________

55. AP Biology Lab 7: Genetics (Fly Lab) ESSAY 2003 (part 1) In fruit flies, the phenotype for eye color is determined by a certain locus. E indicates the dominant allele and e indicates the recessive allele. The cross between a male wild type fruit fly and a female white eyed fruit fly produced the following offspring The wild-type and white-eyed individuals from the F1 generation were then crossed to produce the following offspring. a. Determine the genotypes of the original parents (P generation) and explain your reasoning. You may use Punnett squares to enhance your description, but the results from the Punnett squares must be discussed in your answer. b. Use a Chi-squared test on the F2 generation data to analyze your prediction of the parental genotypes. Show all your work and explain the importance of your final answer. c. The brown-eyed female of the F1 generation resulted from a mutational change. Explain what a mutation is, and discuss two types of mutations that might have produced the brown-eyed female in the F1 generation. Wild-Type Male Wild-Type Female White-eyed Male White-Eyed Female Brown-Eyed Female F-1 0455501 Wild-Type Male Wild-Type Female White-eyed Male White-Eyed Female Brown-Eyed Female F-2 233122240

56. AP Biology Lab 7: Genetics (Fly Lab) ESSAY 2003 (part 2) The formula for Chi-square is: Probability (p) Degrees of Freedom (df) 12345.053.845.997.829.4911.1 22 =  (observed – expected) 2 expected

57. AP Biology Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation Concepts:  Transformation: uptake of foreign DNA from surroundings  Plasmid = small ring of DNA with a few genes  Replicates separately from bacteria DNA  Can carry genes for antibiotic resistance  Genetic engineering: recombinant DNA = pGLO plasmid

58. AP Biology Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation

59. AP Biology Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation  Conclusions:  Foreign DNA inserted using vector (plasmid)  Ampicillin = Selecting agent  No transformation = no growth on amp + plate  Regulate genes by transcription factors (araC protein)

60. AP Biology

65. Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA  Concepts:  Restriction Enzymes  Cut DNA at specific locations  Gel Electrophoresis  DNA is negatively charged  Smaller fragments travel faster

66. AP Biology Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA  Description

67. AP Biology Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA  Determine DNA fragment sizes

68. AP Biology Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA  Conclusions:  Restriction enzymes cut at specific locations (restriction sites)  DNA is negatively charged  Smaller DNA fragments travel faster than larger fragments  Relative size of DNA fragments can be determined by distance travelled  Use standard curve to calculate size

69. AP Biology Labs 8-9: Biotechnology ESSAY 1995 The diagram below shows a segment of DNA with a total length of 4,900 base pairs. The arrows indicate reaction sites for two restriction enzymes (enzyme X and enzyme Y). a.Explain how the principles of gel electrophoresis allow for the separation of DNA fragments b.Describe the results you would expect from electrophoretic separation of fragments from the following treatments of the DNA segment above. Assume that the digestion occurred under appropriate conditions and went to completion. I.DNA digested with only enzyme X II.DNA digested with only enzyme Y III.DNA digested with enzyme X and enzyme Y combined IV.Undigested DNA c.Explain both of the following: 1.The mechanism of action of restriction enzymes 2.The different results you would expect if a mutation occurred at the recognition site for enzyme Y.

70. AP Biology Labs 8-9: Biotechnology ESSAY 2002 The human genome illustrates both continuity and change. a.Describe the essential features of two of the procedures/techniques below. For each of the procedures/techniques you describe, explain how its application contributes to understanding genetics.  The use of a bacterial plasmid to clone and sequence a human gene  Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)  Restriction fragment polymorphism (RFLP analysis) b.All humans are nearly identical genetically in coding sequences and have many proteins that are identical in structure and function. Nevertheless, each human has a unique DNA fingerprint. Explain this apparent contradiction.

71. AP Biology Lab 10: Population Genetics

72. AP Biology Lab 10: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg  Concepts:  Evolution = change in frequency of alleles in a population from generation to generation  Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium  Allele Frequencies (p + q = 1)  Genotypic Frequencies (p 2 +2pq+q 2 = 1)  Conditions: 1. large population 2. random mating 3. no mutations 4. no natural selection 5. no migration

73. AP Biology Lab 10: Population Genetics  More Concepts  gene pool  genetic drift  founder effect  bottleneck

74. AP Biology Lab 10: Population Genetics  Conclusions  recessive alleles remain hidden in the pool of heterozygotes  even lethal recessive alleles are not completely removed from population  know how to solve H-W problems!  to calculate allele frequencies, use p + q = 1  to calculate genotype frequencies or how many individuals, use, p 2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1

75. AP Biology Lab 10: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg  Real-life applications:  Cystic fibrosis, polydactyly  Heterozygote advantage (Sickle-Cell Anemia)

76. AP Biology ESSAY 1989 Do the following with reference to the Hardy-Weinberg model. a. Indicate the conditions under which allele frequencies (p and q) remain constant from one generation to the next. b. Calculate, showing all work, the frequencies of the alleles and frequencies of the genotypes in a population of 100,000 rabbits of which 25,000 are white and 75,000 are agouti. (In rabbits the white color is due to a recessive allele, w, and agouti is due to a dominant allele, W.) c. If the homozygous dominant condition were to become lethal, what would happen to the allelic and genotypic frequencies in the rabbit population after two generations? Lab 10: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg

77. AP Biology Not In Our Book: Lab 11-Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships  Concepts:  Bioinformatics: combines statistics, math modeling, computer science to analyze biological data  Genomes can be compared to detect genetic similarities and differences  BLAST = Basic Local Alignment Search Tool  Input gene sequence of interest  Search genomic libraries for identical or similar sequences

78. AP Biology Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships  Description:  Use BLAST to compare several genes  Use information to construct a cladogram (phylogenetic tree)  Cladogram = visualization of evolutionary relatedness of species

79. AP Biology Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

80. AP Biology Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships  Use this data to construct a cladogram of the major plant groups

81. AP Biology Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships  Fossil specimen in China  DNA was extracted from preserved tissue  Sequences from 4 genes were analyzed using BLAST

82. AP Biology Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships  Analysis & Results:  BLAST results: the higher the score, the closer the alignment  The more similar the genes, the more recent their common ancestor  located closer on the cladogram

83. AP Biology Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

85. AP Biology Lab 12: Artificial Selection  Concepts:  Natural selection = differential reproduction in a population  Populations change over time  evolution  Natural Selection vs. Artificial Selection

86. AP Biology Lab 12: Natural Selection  Description:  Use Brine Shrimp hatching rates to examine selection  Collect data for different salinities  Design an additional experiment to test some other factor in hatching rate.

87. AP Biology Sample Histogram of Brine Shrimp Hatching Hatching Rate of Brine Shrimp Number of hatchlings

88. AP Biology Lab 12: Natural Selection Analysis & Results:  Calculate mean, median, standard deviation, range, for class data.  Are the sub-populations from different groups actually statistically different?  Are the means statistically different?

89. AP Biology Lab 13: Transpiration  Concepts:  Transpiration  Xylem  Water potential  Cohesion-tension hypothesis  Stomata & Guard cells  Leaf surface area & # stomata vs. rate of transpiration

90. AP Biology Lab 13: Transpiration

91. AP Biology Lab 13: Transpiration  Description:  Determine relationship between leaf surface area, # stomata, rate of transpiration  Nail polish  stomatal peels  Effects of environmental factors on rate of transpiration  Temperature, humidity, air flow (wind), light intensity

92. AP Biology Analysis of Stomata

93. AP Biology Rates of Transpiration

94. AP Biology Lab 13: Transpiration  Conclusions:   transpiration:  wind,  light   transpiration:  humidity  Density of stomata vs. transpiration  Leaf surface area vs. transpiration

95. AP Biology

99. LAB 14 Physiology of the Circulatory System

100. AP Biology Lab 14: Circulatory Physiology

101. AP Biology Lab 14: Circulatory Physiology  Description  study factors that affect heart rate  body position  level of activity  determine whether an organism is an endotherm or an ectotherm by measuring change in pulse rate as temperature changes  Daphnia

102. AP Biology Lab 14: Circulatory Physiology  Concepts  thermoregulation  endotherm  ectotherm  Q 10  measures increase in metabolic activity resulting from increase in body temperature  Daphnia can adjust their temperature to the environment, as temperature in environment increases, their body temperature also increases which increases their heart rate

103. AP Biology Lab 14: Circulatory Physiology  Conclusions  Activity increase heart rate  in a fit individual pulse & blood pressure are lower & will return more quickly to resting condition after exercise than in a less fit individual  Pulse rate changes in an ectotherm as external temperature changes

104. AP Biology Lab 14: Circulatory Physiology ESSAY 2002 In mammals, heart rate during periods of exercise is linked to the intensity of exercise. a.Discuss the interactions of the respiratory, circulatory, and nervous systems during exercise. b.Design a controlled experiment to determine the relationship between intensity of exercise and heart rate. c.On the axes provided below, indicate results you expect for both the control and the experimental groups for the controlled experiment you described in part B. Remember to label the axes.

105. AP Biology Lab 15: Animal Behavior  Concepts:  Experimental design  IV, DV, control, constants  Control vs. Experimental  Hypothesis  innate vs. learned behavior  choice chambers  pH  moisture  light intensity  Smells(lemon, vanilla)  other factors

106. AP Biology Lab 15: Animal Behavior  Description:  Investigate relationship between environmental factors vs. behavior  Betta fish agonistic behavior  Drosophila (fruit fly) behavior  Pillbug kinesis

107. AP Biology Lab 15: Animal Behavior

108. AP Biology Lab 15: Animal Behavior  Hypothesis Development  Poor: I think pillbugs will move toward the wet side of a choice chamber.  Better: If pillbugs are randomly placed on two sides of a wet/dry choice chamber and allowed to move about freely for 10 minutes, then more pillbugs will be found on the wet side because they prefer moist environments.

109. AP Biology Lab 15: Animal Behavior  Experimental Design s ample size

110. AP Biology Lab 15: Animal Behavior  Data Analysis:  Chi-Square Test  Null hypothesis: there is no difference between the conditions  Degrees of Freedom = n-1  At p=0.05, if X 2 < critical value  accept null hypothesis (any differences between observed and expected due to CHANCE)

111. AP Biology  If there is NO difference, expected # after 10 minutes is 5 per side…Determine Chi Square for the following Data: Group NumberPillbugs After 10 Minutes 13/7 25/5 39/1 47/3 58/2

112. AP Biology Lab 15: Animal (Fruit Fly or Pillbug) Behavior ESSAY 1997 A scientist working with Bursatella leachii, a sea slug that lives in an intertidal habitat in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico, gathered the following information about the distribution of the sea slugs within a ten-meter square plot over a 10- day period. a.For the data above, provide information on each of the following:  Summarize the pattern.  Identify three physiological or environmental variables that could cause the slugs to vary their distance from each other.  Explain how each variable could bring about the observed pattern of distribution. b.Choose one of the variables that you identified and design a controlled experiment to test your hypothetical explanation. Describe results that would support or refute your hypothesis. time of day12 mid4am8am12 noon4pm8pm12 mid average distance between individuals 8.08.944.8174.0350.560.58.0

113. AP Biology Lab 15: Animal (Fruit Fly or Pillbug) Behavior ESSAY 2002 The activities of organisms change at regular time intervals. These changes are called biological rhythms. The graph depicts the activity cycle over a 48-hour period for a fictional group of mammals called pointy-eared bombats, found on an isolated island in the temperate zone. a.Describe the cycle of activity for the bombats. Discuss how three of the following factors might affect the physiology and/or behavior of the bombats to result in this pattern of activity.  temperature  food availability  presence of predators  social behavior b.Propose a hypothesis regarding the effect of light on the cycle of activity in bombats. Describe a controlled experiment that could be performed to test this hypothesis, and the results you would expect.

114. AP Biology Lab 16: Energy Dynamics  Concepts:  Energy from sunlight  drives photosynthesis (store E in organic compounds)  Gross Productivity (GPP) = energy captured  But some energy is used for respiration (R)  Net primary productivity (NPP) = GPP – R  Energy flows! (but matter cycles)  Producers  consumers  Biomass = mass of dry weight

115. AP Biology Lab 16: Energy Dynamics Pyramid of Energy Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Numbers

116. AP Biology Lab 16: Energy Dynamics  Description:  Brassica (cabbage)  cabbage white butterfly larvae (caterpillars)

117. Lab 16: Energy Dynamics  Measuring Biomass:  Cabbage  mass lost  Caterpillar  mass gained  Caterpillar frass (poop)  dry mass

118. AP Biology Lab 16: Energy Dynamics

119. AP Biology Lab 16: Energy Dynamics  Conclusions:

120. AP Biology Lab 16: Energy Dynamics  Conclusions:  Energy is lost (respiration, waste)  Conservation of Mass  Input = Output

122. AP Biology

123. Any Questions??