1. “The Vanishing American” Historical Context

2. Historical Context, The Progressive Era Background of the American Indian Wars 1840s through 1880s End of Treaty-making 1871 symbolized power of US Confinement on reservations Small percentage of aboriginal land base Assimilation and “Americanization” Dawes Allotment Act of 1887 Strip Indians of land, culture, language, identity Boarding Schools

3. Early Reservation Era: 1880-1920 “Assimilate, Uplift, and Civilize” I). Boarding Schools A). Language, Identity, Tribalism II). Land A). Allotment, farming, tribalism III). Religion IV). Individualize (De-tribalize)

4. Reservation Life, 1900s -“New Homelands“ -Governments in transition: bands, clans, Councils -Generational differences -Rations -Wage labor & hybrid economies -Boarding schools & language

5. San Felipe, NM 1920s

6. Hopi Woman, 1900

7. Boarding Schools, 1880-1920 -Assimilation -“Education” -Vocational labor -Language, dress, hair -Multi-tribal -Military/discipline -De-tribalize  Genoa School Nebraska (1910)

8. Allotment of Land, 1887-1934 -1887 Dawes Allotment Act -Tribal rolls (blood quantum) -Individual plots, Farming -Competition -Detribalize -Surplus land sold off -In-trust for 25 yrs -Fee simple -Resources -Citizenship & taxes

9. National Organizations & Issues -The Society of American Indians (1911) -Education -Self-determination -Citizenship -Racial uplift -World War One -Bureau of Indian Aff.

10. Society for American Indians -Robert Yellowtail -Dr. Carlos Montezuma -Zitkala Sa -Arthur C. Parker -Henry Roe Cloud -Pressure congress, write letters, organize communities, demand rights & treaties

11. Carlos Montezuma -b.1860s -Yavapai -Kidnapped, sold -Univ. Chicago -Physician -Activist -Abolish the BIA -Society for Am. Indians

12. Zitkala Sa (Gertrude Bonin) -b.1876 -Yankton Sioux -Whites’ Manual Inst. -Boston Conservatory (violin) -American Indian Stories -Playwright, teacher -Anti-Christian -Society for Amer. Indians -Died, 1938

13. Reform and Reorganization I). Citizenship and WWI II). “Failure” of Indian Policies III). Great Depression IV). Indian New Deal & Indian Reorganization Act V). The Second World War

14. World War One -Service in WWI -Assimilation -“Natural scouts” -Integrated units -25% registered -16,500 served -Iroquois sovereignty -1% Navajos; 50% OKLA

15. Indian Status Citizenship, 1924 Voting limited Tribal governments Weak, mixtures Discrimination Border towns Education Health care

16. Economics and Poverty Unemployment Mixed economies Wage Labor Legacy of land and allotment Leasing system Checkerboard Trading Posts

17. New Mexico 1920s Sec. Interior Albert B. Fall, NM lawyer & Senator Tried alloting Mescalero to gain water for his lands Fraud & Pueblo Lands

18. Regional Responses Mission Indian Federation, 1919 Regional pan-Indian political organization Labor, voting rights Indian rights and land claims, treaties

19. Colonialism in Indian America, 1920s BIA and Lease payments “Indian Ring” Discrimination off reservations Inadequate land base Health care: TB, Trachoma, etc Malnourishment Religious Oppression Allotment and checkerboard

20. The Navajo

21. Navajo Context Bosque Redondo and the Long Walk Treaty of 1868 Return to Four Sacred Mountains Expansion and increase in reservation size Largest group in US Clans and matrilineal descent

22. 1874 Peace Delegation

23. Expanding the Reservation

24. Women & sheep

25. Neo-colonial Tribal Government Decentralized government, no single authority. Headmen and consensus, diverse views and reactions 1923 imposition of the Tribal Council to facilitate oil and gas leases, timber, water resources. Colonial “puppet government.” Chee Dodge (Chairman) and Jacob Morgan as transitional figures from 19th century into the 20th century Violated 1868 Treaty (3/4 clause) Creation of “chapters” as units of voting and representation (@ 90 today)

26. The Merriam Report, 1928 -Brookings Institute -Lewis Merriam -Survey of reservations and conditions -Indian policy “failed” to assimilate/uplift -Corruption in BIA -Land allotment disastrous and immoral -OK, Pueblos, Dakotas, CA -Reform needed

27. Conclusions Native People did not disappear Adapted, resisted, persisted Kept many traditions and created new traditions Legacy of land loss, relocations, and dispossession BIA and American colonialism Assaults on language, culture, religion Boarding schools WWI Citizenship and status Struggling for rights and independence