1. 1 Thinking, Language, & Intelligence Chapter 9

2. 2 Thinking Thinking, or cognition, refers to a process that involves knowing, understanding, remembering, and communicating.

3. 3 Cognitive Psychologists Thinking involves a number of mental activities, which are listed below. Cognitive psychologists study these in great detail. 1.Concepts 2.Problem solving 3.Decision making 4.Judgment formation

4. 4 Concepts The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs but their common features define the concept of a chair.

5. 5 Category Hierarchies We organize concepts into category hierarchies. Courtesy of Christine Brune

6. 6 Development of Concepts We form some concepts with definitions. For example, a triangle has three sides. Mostly, we form concepts with mental images or typical examples (prototypes). For example, a robin is a prototype of a bird, but a penguin is not. Triangle (definition) Bird (mental image) Daniel J. Cox/ Getty Images J. Messerschmidt/ The Picture Cube

7. 7 Problem Solving Problem solving strategies include: 1.Trial and Error 2.Algorithms 3.Heuristics 4.Insight

8. 8 Algorithms Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. Computers use algorithms. S P L O Y O C H Y G If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face 907,200 possibilities.

9. 9 Heuristics Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms. B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images

10. 10 Heuristics Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems. S P L O Y O C H Y G S P L O Y O C H G YP S L O Y O C H G YP S Y C H O L O G Y Put a Y at the end, and see if the word begins to make sense.

11. 11 Insight Insight involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. Humans and animals have insight. Grande using boxes to obtain food

12. 12 Insight Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when an insight strikes (the “Aha” experience), it activates the right temporal cortex (Jung- Beeman & others, 2004). The time between not knowing the solution and realizing it is about 0.3 seconds. From Mark Jung-Beekman, Northwestern University and John Kounios, Drexel University

13. 13 Obstacles in Solving Problems Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias. 2 – 4 – 6 Rule: Any ascending series of numbers. 1 – 2 – 3 would comply. Wason’s students had difficulty figuring out the rule due to a confirmation bias (Wason, 1960).

14. 14 Fixation Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes problem solving. An example of fixation is functional fixedness. The Matchstick Problem: How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles? From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

15. 15 Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board? Candle-Mounting Problem From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

16. 16 The Matchstick Problem: Solution From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

17. 17 Candle-Mounting Problem: Solution

18. 18 Making Decision & Forming Judgments Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions based on our intuition, seldom using systematic reasoning.

19. 19 Using and Misusing Heuristics Two kinds of heuristics, representative heuristics and availability heuristics, have been identified by cognitive psychologists. Amos Tversky Daniel Kahneman Courtesy of Greymeyer Award, University of Louisville and the Tversky family Courtesy of Greymeyer Award, University of Louisville and Daniel Kahneman

20. 20 Probability that that person is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just because there are more truck drivers than such professors. Representativeness Heuristic Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, a particular prototype. If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think his profession would be? An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?

21. 21 Availability Heuristic Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray? Whatever increases the ease of retrieving information increases its perceived availability. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KOzAxhu6w2s&feature=related How is retrieval facilitated? 1.How recently we have heard about the event. 2.How distinct it is. 3.How correct it is.

22. 22 Overconfidence Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and the inclination to explain failures increase our overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PFvWRo_S_uo&feature=related In the stock market, both the seller and the buyer may be confident about their decisions on a stock.

23. 23 Exaggerated Fear The opposite of having overconfidence is having an exaggerated fear about what may happen. Such fears may be unfounded. The 9/11 attacks led to a decline in air travel due to fear. AP/ Wide World Photos

24. 24 The Effects of Framing Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed. Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?

25. 25 The Belief Perseverance Phenomenon Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. If you see that a country is hostile, you are likely to interpret their ambiguous actions as a sign of hostility (Jervis, 1985).

26. 26 Perils & Powers of Intuition Intuition may be perilous if unchecked, but may also be extremely efficient and adaptive.

27. 27 Language Language, our spoken, written, or gestured work, is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves and others. Language transmits culture. M. & E. Bernheim/ Woodfin Camp & Associates

28. 28 Language Development Children learn their native languages much before learning to add 2+2. We learn, on average (after age 1), 3,500 words a year, amassing 60,000 words by the time we graduate from high school. Time Life Pictures/ Getty Images

29. 29 When do we learn language? Babbling Stage: Beginning at 4 months, the infant spontaneously utters various sounds, like ah- goo. Babbling is not imitation of adult speech.

30. 30 When do we learn language? One-Word Stage: Beginning at or around his first birthday, a child starts to speak one word at a time and is able to make family members understand him. The word doggy may mean look at the dog out there.

31. 31 When do we learn language? Two-Word Stage: Before the 2nd year, a child starts to speak in two-word sentences. This form of speech is called telegraphic speech because the child speaks like a telegram: “Go car,” means I would like to go for a ride in the car.

32. 32 When do we learn language? Longer phrases: After telegraphic speech, children begin uttering longer phrases (Mommy get ball) with syntactical sense, and by early elementary school they are employing humor. You never starve in the desert because of all the sand-which-is there.

33. 33 When do we learn language? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nvuPHu0pYlY

34. 34 Explaining Language Development 1.Operant Learning: Skinner (1957, 1985) believed that language development may be explained on the basis of learning principles such as association, imitation, and reinforcement.

35. 35 Explaining Language Development 2.Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959, 1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, and thus most of it is inborn.

36. 36 Explaining Language Development Childhood is a critical period for fully developing certain aspects of language. Children never exposed to any language (spoken or signed) by about age 7 gradually lose their ability to master any language. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=On2Qt132Ozg&feature=related

37. 37 Genes, Brain, & Language Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and experience modifies the brain. Michael Newman/ Photo Edit, Inc. Eye of Science/ Photo Researchers, Inc. David Hume Kennerly/ Getty Images

38. 38 Critical Period Learning new languages gets harder with age.

39. 39 Thinking & Language Language and thinking intricately intertwine. Rubber Ball/ Almay

40. 40 Language Influences Thinking Linguistic Determinism: Whorf (1956) suggested that language determines the way we think. For example, he noted that the Hopi people do not have the past tense for verbs. Therefore, the Hopi cannot think readily about the past.

41. 41 Language Influences Thinking When a language provides words for objects or events, we can think about these objects more clearly and remember them. It is easier to think about two colors with two different names (A) than colors with the same name (B) (Özgen, 2004).

42. 42 Word Power Increasing word power pays its dividends. It helps explain the bilingual advantage of bilingual children to inhibit one language while using another.

43. 43 Thinking in Images To a large extent thinking is language-based. When alone, we may talk to ourselves. However, we also think in images. 2. When we are riding our bicycle. 1. When we open the hot water tap. We don’t think in words, when:

44. 44 Images and Brain Imagining a physical activity activates the same brain regions as when actually performing the activity. Jean Duffy Decety, September 2003

45. 45 Language and Thinking Traffic runs both ways between language and thinking.

46. 46 Do animals have a language? Animal Thinking & Language Honey bees communicate by dancing. The dance moves clearly indicate the direction of the nectar. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7ijI-g4jHg&feature=related

47. 47 Do Animals Think? Common cognitive skills in humans and apes include the following: 1.Concept Formation 2.Insight 3.Problem Solving 4.Culture African grey parrot assorts red blocks from green balls. William Munoz

48. 48 Insight Chimpanzees show insightful behavior when solving problems. Sultan uses sticks to get food.

49. 49 Problem Solving Apes are, much like us, shaped by reinforcement when solving problems. Chimpanzee fishing for ants. Courtesy of Jennifer Byrne, c/o Richard Byrne, Department of Psychology, University of St. Andrews, Scotland

50. 50 Animal Culture Animals display customs and culture that are learned and transmitted over generations. Dolphins using sponges as forging tools. Chimpanzee mother using and teaching a young how to use a stone hammer. Copyright Amanda K Coakes Michael Nichols/ National Geographic Society

51. 51 Do Animals Exhibit Language? There is no doubt that animals communicate. Vervet monkeys, whales and even honey bees communicate with members of their species and other species. Rico (collie) has a 200-word vocabulary Copyright Baus/ Kreslowski

52. 52 The Case of Apes Gardner and Gardner (1969) used American Sign Language (ASL) to train Washoe, a chimp, who learned 181 signs by the age of 32.

53. 53 Gestured Communication Animals, like humans, exhibit communication through gestures. It is possible that vocal speech developed from gestures during the course of evolution.

54. 54 But Can Apes Really Talk? 1.Apes acquire their limited vocabularies with a great deal of difficulty, unlike children who develop vocabularies at amazing rates. 2.Chimpanzees can make signs to receive a reward, just as a pigeon who pecks at the key receives a reward. However, pigeons have not learned a language. 3.Chimpanzees use signs meaningfully but lack human syntax. 4.Presented with ambiguous information, people tend to see what they want to see (perceptual set).

55. 55 Sign Language American Sign Language (ASL) is instrumental in teaching chimpanzees a form of communication. When asked, this chimpanzee uses a sign to say it is a baby. Paul Fusco/ Magnum Photos

56. 56 Syntax Comprehension Others have shown that pygmy chimpanzees can develop even greater vocabularies and perhaps semantic nuances in learning a language (Savage-Rumbaugh, 1993). Kanzi (shown below) developed vocabulary for hundreds of words and phrases. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LxmbjLoUnhk&feature=related Copyright of Great Ape Trust of Iowa

57. 57 Conclusions If we say that animals can use meaningful sequences of signs to communicate a capability for language, our understanding would be naive… Steven Pinker (1995) concludes, “chimps do not develop language.” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=utVXZAflESo

58. 58 Intelligence Do we have an inborn general mental capacity (intelligence)? If so, can we quantify this capacity as a meaningful number?

59. 59 What is Intelligence? Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new situations. In research studies, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures. This tends to be “school smarts.”

60. 60 Intelligence: Ability or Abilities? Have you ever thought that since people’s mental abilities are so diverse, it may not be justifiable to label those abilities with only one word, intelligence?

61. 61 General Intelligence The idea that general intelligence (g) exists comes from the work of Charles Spearman (1863-1945) who helped develop the factor analysis approach in statistics. Athleticism, like intelligence, is many things

62. 62 General Intelligence Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis. For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor, or a reasoning ability factor.

63. 63 Contemporary Intelligence Theories Howard Gardner (1983, 1999) supports the idea that intelligence comes in multiple forms. Gardner notes that brain damage may diminish one type of ability but not others. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=II9Y1mOKDhY People with savant syndrome excel in abilities unrelated to general intelligence. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7nIcPTm0dmo&feature=related

64. 64 Howard Gardner Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences and speculates about a ninth one — existential intelligence. Existential intelligence is the ability to think about the question of life, death and existence.

65. 65 Robert Sternberg Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) also agrees with Gardner, but suggests three intelligences rather than eight. 1.Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests. 2.Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas. 3.Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).

66. 66 Intelligence and Creativity Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable. It correlates somewhat with intelligence. 1.Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base. 2.Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things in novel ways. 3.A Venturesome Personality: A personality that seeks new experiences rather than following the pack. 4.Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from within. 5.A Creative Environment: A creative and supportive environment allows creativity to bloom.

67. 67 Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, and use emotions (Salovey and others, 2005). The test of emotional intelligence measures overall emotional intelligence and its four components.

68. 68 Emotional Intelligence: Components ComponentDescription Perceive emotion Recognize emotions in faces, music and stories Understand emotion Predict emotions, how they change and blend Manage emotion Express emotions in different situations Use emotion Utilize emotions to adapt or be creative

69. 69 Emotional Intelligence: Criticism Gardner and others criticize the idea of emotional intelligence and question whether we stretch this idea of intelligence too far when we apply it to our emotions.

70. 70 Assessing Intelligence Psychologists define intelligence testing as a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with others using numerical scores.

71. 71 Alfred Binet Alfred Binet and his colleague Théodore Simon practiced a more modern form of intelligence testing by developing questions that would predict children’s future progress in the Paris school system.

72. 72 Lewis Terman In the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test for American school children and named the test the Stanford-Binet Test. The following is the formula of Intelligence Quotient (IQ), introduced by William Stern:

73. 73 David Wechsler Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and later the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), an intelligence test for school-aged children.

74. 74 WAIS WAIS measures overall intelligence and 11 other aspects related to intelligence that are designed to assess clinical and educational problems.

75. 75 Principles of Test Construction For a psychological test to be acceptable it must fulfill the following three criteria: 1.Standardization 2.Reliability 3.Validity

76. 76 Standardization Standardizing a test involves administering the test to a representative sample of future test takers in order to establish a basis for meaningful comparison.

77. 77 Normal Curve Standardized tests establish a normal distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve.

78. 78 Reliability A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. To establish reliability researchers establish different procedures: 1.Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are. 2.Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.

79. 79 Validity Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test refers to what the test is supposed to measure or predict. 1.Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait. 2.Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.

80. 80 Extremes of Intelligence A valid intelligence test divides two groups of people into two extremes: the mentally retarded (IQ 70) and individuals with high intelligence (IQ 135). These two groups are significantly different.

81. 81 High Intelligence Contrary to popular belief, people with high intelligence test scores tend to be healthy, well adjusted, and unusually successful academically.

82. 82 Mental Retardation Mentally retarded individuals required constant supervision a few decades ago, but with a supportive family environment and special education they can now care for themselves. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZMJAgdMBPsg

83. 83 Flynn Effect In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risen steadily by an average of 27 points. This phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect.

84. 84 Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence No other topic in psychology is so passionately followed as the one that asks the question, “Is intelligence due to genetics or environment?”

85. 85 Genetic Influences Studies of twins, family members, and adopted children together support the idea that there is a significant genetic contribution to intelligence.

86. 86 Adoption Studies Adopted children show a marginal correlation in verbal ability to their adopted parents.

87. 87 Heritability The variation in intelligence test scores attributable to genetics. We credit heredity with 50% of the variation in intelligence. It pertains only to why people differ from one another, not to the individual.

88. 88 Environmental Influences Studies of twins and adopted children also show the following: 1.Fraternal twins raised together tend to show similarity in intelligence scores. 2.Identical twins raised apart show slightly less similarity in their intelligence scores.

89. 89 Early Intervention Effects Early neglect from caregivers leads children to develop a lack of personal control over the environment, and it impoverishes their intelligence. Romanian orphans with minimal human interaction are delayed in their development.

90. 90 Schooling Effects Schooling is an experience that pays dividends, which is reflected in intelligence scores. Increased schooling correlates with higher intelligence scores. To increase readiness for schoolwork, projects like Head Start facilitate leaning. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bF8XbaAr7t8

91. 91 Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores Why do groups differ in intelligence? How can we make sense of these differences?

92. 92 Ethnic Similarities and Differences 1.Racial groups differ in their average intelligence scores. 2.High-scoring people (and groups) are more likely to attain high levels of education and income. To discuss this issue we begin with two disturbing but agreed upon facts:

93. 93 Racial (Group) Differences If we look at racial differences, white Americans score higher in average intelligence than black Americans (Avery and others, 1994). European New Zealanders score higher than native New Zealanders (Braden, 1994). White-Americans Black-Americans Average IQ = 100 Average IQ = 85 Hispanic Americans

94. 94 Environmental Effects Differences in intelligence among these groups are largely environmental, as if one environment is more fertile in developing these abilities than the other.

95. 95 Reasons Why Environment Affects Intelligence 1.Races are remarkably alike genetically. 2.Race is a social category. 3.Asian students outperform North American students on math achievement and aptitude tests. 4.Today’s better prepared populations would outperform populations of the 1930s on intelligence tests. 5.White and black infants tend to score equally well on tests predicting future intelligence. 6.Different ethnic groups have experienced periods of remarkable achievement in different eras.

96. 96 Gender Similarities and Differences There are seven ways in which males and females differ in various abilities. 1. Girls are better spellers 2. Girls are verbally fluent and have large vocabularies 3. Girls are better at locating objects 4. Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color 5. Boys outnumber girls in counts of underachievement 6. Boys outperform girls at math problem solving, but under perform at math computation 7. Women detect emotions more easily than men do

97. 97 The Question of Bias Aptitude tests are necessarily biased in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural differences. However, aptitude tests are not biased in the sense that they accurately predict performance of one group over the other.

98. 98 Test-Takers’ Expectations A stereotype threat is a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. This phenomenon appears in some instances in intelligence testing among African-Americans and among women of all colors.

99. 99 Trivia!

100. 100 1. While working on a word problem, Jenae has an “Aha!” moment of sudden insight about how to solve the problem. If you were mapping her brain activity on an EEG at that moment, you would expect to observe a burst of activity in her: A. left frontal lobe. B. right frontal lobe. C. left temporal lobe. D. right temporal lobe.

101. 101 2. To find Tabasco sauce in a large grocery store, you could systematically search every shelf in every store aisle. This best illustrates problem solving by means of: A. the availability heuristic. B. functional fixedness. C. an algorithm. D. the representativeness heuristic.

102. 102 3. Pablo vainly searches for a screwdriver while failing to recognize that a readily available coin in his pocket would turn the screw. His oversight best illustrates: A. functional fixedness. B. the availability heuristic. C. belief perseverance. D. the representativeness heuristic.

103. 103 4. A defense attorney emphasizes to a jury that her client works full-time, supports his family, and enjoys leisure-time hobbies. Although none of this information is relevant to the trial, it is designed to make the defendant appear to be a typical member of the local community. The lawyer is most clearly attempting to take advantage of: A. confirmation bias. B. functional fixedness. C. belief perseverance. D. the representativeness heuristic.

104. 104 5. Which of the following is TRUE? A. People underestimate the accuracy of their judgments. B. People pay closest attention to information that disconfirms what they believe. C. It is difficult for most people to explain away their failures. D. People are overconfident about how they will perform on various tasks.

105. 105 6. Advertisers know that a thirty-three percent discount sounds like a better deal than a discount of one third. This best illustrates: A. framing. B. belief bias. C. representativeness heuristics. D. confirmation bias.

106. 106 7. Maintaining one's conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited is known as: A. the representativeness heuristic. B. belief perseverance. C. confirmation bias. D. functional fixedness.

107. 107 8. Using different words for two very similar objects enables people to recognize conceptual distinctions between the objects. This illustrates: A. telegraphic speech. B. linguistic determinism. C. functional fixedness. D. the representativeness heuristic.

108. 108 9. Which language theorist would have been most likely to emphasize that children master the rule for forming the past tense of regular verbs like "push" before they learn common past tense constructions of irregular verbs like "go"? A. B. F. Skinner B. Benjamin Lee Whorf C. Noam Chomsky D. Beatrix Gardner

109. 109 10. Which of the following is NOT included as part of today’s general definition of intelligence? A. the ability to solve problems B. the ability to use knowledge to adapt to new situations C. the ability to understand people and emotions D. the ability to learn from experience

110. 110 11. Although diagnosed with autism and hardly able to speak coherently, 18-year-old Andrew can produce intricate and detailed drawings of scenes he has viewed only once. Andrew illustrates a condition known as: A. g factor. B. Down syndrome. C. emotional intelligence. D. savant syndrome.

111. 111 12. When Phoebe strongly disagrees with her sister's opinion, she effectively controls her own anger and responds with empathy to her sister's frustration regarding their dispute. Her behavior best illustrates: A. factor analysis. B. analytic intelligence. C. predictive validity. D. emotional intelligence.

112. 112 13. In developing the first intelligence test, Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon developed a measure of a child’s: A. mental age. B. musical aptitude. C. mathematical ability. D. vocabulary.

113. 113 14. What percentage of people score between 70 and 130 on a typical test of intelligence? A. fifteen percent B. thirty-four percent C. sixty-eight percent D. ninety-five percent

114. 114 15. Mary's bathroom scale always overstates people's actual weight by exactly six pounds. The scale has ________ reliability and ________ validity. A. low; high B. high; low C. low; low D. high; high

115. 115 16. College grades are the criterion for the ________ of college entrance exams. A. heritability B. reliability C. standardization D. predictive validity

116. 116 17. __________ is the most common level of mental retardation. A. Mild B. Moderate C. Severe D. Profound

117. 117 18. The similarity between the intelligence test scores of non-twin siblings reared together is: A. greater than that between identical twins reared apart. B. equal to that between fraternal twins reared together. C. greater than that between unrelated adoptive siblings reared together. D. less than that between children and their biological parents.

118. 118 19. Problem solving is one type of cognitive activity in which we all engage. Which of the following cognitive tendencies is seen to be an obstacle to problem solving? A. availability heuristic B. insight C. prototype confusion D. confirmation bias

119. 119 20. A typical one-year-old child: A. uses telegraphic speech. B. imitates two-word phases. C. is in the cooing stage. D. has lost the ability to discriminate phoneme sounds outside her native language.

120. 120 21. Noam Chomsky’s theory of language acquisition holds that people have an inborn universal grammar that makes learning of language easy for children. Which of the following statements is used as support for this theory? A. Children repeat words that they hear frequently. B. Regardless of the language learned, children tend to make similar errors of grammar when they first begin to learn language. C. Chimpanzees and other apes can easily learn language. D. Some children’s vocabularies are extensive, despite the fact that they may live in poor environments.

121. 121 22. Which of these findings have been cited as evidence supporting the viewpoint that animals have capacity for language? A. Washoe, a language trained chimp has been observed trying to teach other chimps to use language without trainer intervention. B. Chimpanzees’ and other apes’ use of language is seemingly unlimited. C. Chimps simply imitate the gestures of the trainers. D. Language behaviors are strongly reinforced by the trainers.

122. 122 23. Savant syndrome lends support to which theory of intelligence? A. Charles Spearman’s “g” B. the theory of brain size C. Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences D. the theory of emotional intelligence

123. 123 24. Some people appear to be self-aware, manage conflicts well, and generally seem to be well equipped to handle most social and emotional situations very well. What type of intelligence does this seem to reflect? A. creative intelligence B. practical intelligence C. emotional intelligence D. this is not considered a type of intelligence

124. 124 25. You are applying for a job as a salesperson for a large cell phone company. You are given a battery of tests. Which of the following might be the best for determining your ability to succeed in this job? A. a test of emotional intelligence B. a test of creativity C. a traditional IQ test D. a polygraph test