1. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece Lectures by Chris Romero Chapter 53 Community Ecology

2. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Overview: What Is a Community? A biological community is an assemblage of populations of various species living close enough for potential interaction Animals and plants surrounding a watering hole in southern Africa are members of a savanna community

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4. Concept 53.1: A community’s interactions include competition, predation, herbivory, symbiosis, and disease Ecologists call relationships between species in a community interspecific interactions Interspecific interactions affect species survival and reproduction Examples are competition, predation, herbivory, symbiosis (parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism), and disease

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6. Competition Interspecific competition occurs when species compete for a resource in short supply Strong competition can lead to competitive exclusion, local elimination of a competing species The competitive exclusion principle states that two species competing for the same limiting resources cannot coexist in the same place

7. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ecological Niches The total of a species’ use of biotic and abiotic resources is called the species’ ecological niche Ecologically similar species can coexist in a community if there are one or more significant differences in their niches As a result of competition, a species’ fundamental niche may differ from its realized niche

8. LE 53-2 Chthamalus fundamental niche High tide Low tide Ocean Chthamalus realized niche High tide Low tide Ocean Balanus realized niche Chthamalus Balanus

9. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Resource Partitioning Resource partitioning is differentiation of ecological niches, enabling similar species to coexist in a community

10. LE 53-3 A. insolitus usually perches on shady branches. A. ricordii A. insolitus A. christophei A. cybotes A. etheridgei A. aliniger A. distichus perches on fence posts and other sunny surfaces.

11. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Character Displacement Character displacement is a tendency for characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations of two species than in allopatric populations of the same two species An example is variation in beak size between populations of two species of Galapagos finches

12. LE 53-4 Beak depth Sympatric populations G. fuliginosa G. fortis Santa María, San Cristóbal 40 20 0 Los Hermanos 40 20 0 Daphne 40 20 0 G. fuliginosa, allopatric G. fortis, allopatric Beak depth (mm) 16 14 12 10 8 Percentage of individuals in each size class

13. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Predation Predation refers to interaction where one species, the predator, kills and eats the other, the prey Some feeding adaptations of predators are claws, teeth, fangs, stingers, and poison Prey display various defensive adaptations Behavioral defenses include hiding, fleeing, self- defense, and alarm calls Animals also have morphological and physiological defense adaptations

14. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cryptic coloration, or camouflage, makes prey difficult to spot Animals with effective chemical defense often exhibit bright warning coloration, called aposematic coloration Predators are particularly cautious in dealing with prey that display such coloration Video: Seahorse Camouflage Video: Seahorse Camouflage

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17. In some cases, a prey species may gain significant protection by mimicking the appearance of another species In Batesian mimicry, a palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful model In Müllerian mimicry, two or more unpalatable species resemble each other

18. LE 53-7 Hawkmoth larva Green parrot snake

19. LE 53-8 Cuckoo bee Yellow jacket

20. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Herbivory Herbivory refers to an interaction in which an herbivore eats parts of a plant or alga It has led to evolution of plant mechanical and chemical defenses and adaptations by herbivores

21. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Parasitism In parasitism, one organism, the parasite, derives nourishment from another organism, its host, which is harmed in the process Parasitism exerts substantial influence on populations and the structure of communities

22. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Disease Effects of disease on populations and communities are similar to those of parasites Pathogens, disease-causing agents, are typically bacteria, viruses, or protists

23. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Mutualism Mutualistic symbiosis, or mutualism, is an interspecific interaction that benefits both species Video: Clownfish and Anemone Video: Clownfish and Anemone

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25. Commensalism In commensalism, one species benefits and the other is apparently unaffected Commensal interactions are hard to document in nature because any close association of two species likely affects both

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27. Interspecific Interactions and Adaptation Coevolution is reciprocal evolutionary adaptations of two interacting species The term is often used too loosely in describing adaptations within a community There is little evidence for true coevolution in most interspecific interactions

28. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 53.2: Dominant and keystone species exert strong controls on community structure In general, a few species in a community exert strong control on that community’s structure Two fundamental features of community structure are species diversity and feeding relationships

29. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Species Diversity Species diversity of a community is the variety of organisms that make up the community It has two components: species richness and relative abundance Species richness is the total number of different species in the community Relative abundance is the proportion each species represents of the total individuals in the community

30. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Two communities can have the same species richness but a different relative abundance A community with an even species abundance is more diverse than one in which one or two species are abundant and the remainder are rare

31. LE 53-11 Community 1 A B C D A: 25% B: 25% C: 25% D: 25% Community 2 A: 80% B: 5% C: 5% D: 10%

32. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Trophic Structure Trophic structure is the feeding relationships between organisms in a community It is a key factor in community dynamics Food chains link trophic levels from producers to top carnivores Video: Shark Eating a Seal Video: Shark Eating a Seal

33. LE 53-12 Quaternary consumers Tertiary consumers Carnivore Secondary consumers Carnivore Primary consumers ZooplanktonHerbivore Primary producers Phytoplankton Plant A terrestrial food chain A marine food chain

34. LE 53-13 Euphausids (krill) Carnivorous plankton Phyto- plankton Copepods Squids Elephant seals Fishes Birds Crab-eater seals Leopard seals Sperm whales Smaller toothed whales Baleen whales Humans A food web is a branching food chain with complex trophic interactions

35. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Food webs can be simplified by isolating a portion of a community that interacts very little with the rest of the community

36. LE 53-14 Zooplankton Fish larvae Fish eggs Sea nettle Juvenile striped bass

37. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Limits on Food Chain Length Each food chain in a food web is usually only a few links long Two hypotheses attempt to explain food chain length: the energetic hypothesis and the dynamic stability hypothesis The energetic hypothesis suggests that length is limited by inefficient energy transfer The dynamic stability hypothesis proposes that long food chains are less stable than short ones Most data support the energetic hypothesis

38. LE 53-15 Productivity Number of trophic links Number of species No. of trophic links No. of species High (control) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Medium Low

39. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Species with a Large Impact Certain species have a very large impact on community structure Such species are highly abundant or play a pivotal role in community dynamics Dominant species are those that are most abundant or have the highest biomass They exert powerful control over the occurrence and distribution of other species

40. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings One hypothesis suggests that dominant species are most competitive in exploiting resources Another hypothesis is that they are most successful at avoiding predators In contrast to dominant species, keystone species are not necessarily abundant in a community They exert strong control on a community by their ecological roles, or niches Field studies of sea stars exhibit their role as a keystone species in intertidal communities

41. LE 53-16 Without Pisaster (experimental) With Pisaster (control) 1963 ’64’65 ’66 ’67 ’68’69 ’70 ’71 ’72 ’73 20 15 10 5 0 Number of species present

42. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Observation of sea otter populations and their predation shows how otters affect ocean communities

43. LE 53-17 100 80 60 40 0 20 Sea otter abundance Otter number (% max. count) 400 300 200 0 100 Sea urchin biomass Grams per 0.25 m 2 10 8 6 4 0 2 Total kelp density Number per 0.25 m 2 199719931989 1985 1972 Year Food chain before killer whale involvement in chain Food chain after killer whales started preying on otters

44. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ecosystem “Engineers” (Foundation Species) Some organisms exert influence by causing physical changes in the environment that affect community structure For example, beaver dams can transform landscapes on a very large scale Some foundation species act as facilitators that have positive effects on survival and reproduction of some other species in the community

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46. LE 53-19 Number of plant species 8 6 4 0 2 Conditions With Juncus Without Juncus Salt marsh with Juncus (foreground)

47. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bottom-Up and Top-Down Controls The bottom-up model of community organization proposes a unidirectional influence from lower to higher trophic levels In this case, presence or absence of mineral nutrients determines community structure, including abundance of primary producers The top-down model proposes that control comes from the trophic level above In this case, predators control herbivores, which in turn control primary producers

48. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Long-term experimental studies have shown that communities can shift periodically from bottom-up to top-down controls Pollution can affect community dynamics Biomanipulation can help restore polluted communities

49. LE 53-20 Percentage of herbaceous plant cover 100 75 50 0 25 Rainfall (mm) 200 3004000 100

50. LE 53-UN1171 Polluted State Restored State Fish Abundant Rare Zooplankton Abundant Rare Algae Abundant Rare

51. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 53.3: Disturbance influences species diversity and composition Decades ago, most ecologists favored the view that communities are in a state of equilibrium Recent evidence of change has led to a nonequilibrium model, which describes communities as constantly changing after being buffeted by disturbances

52. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings What Is Disturbance? A disturbance is an event that changes a community, removes organisms from it, and alters resource availability Fire is a significant disturbance in most terrestrial ecosystems It is often a necessity in some communities

53. LE 53-21 Before a controlled burn. A prairie that has not burned for several years has a high propor- tion of detritus (dead grass). During the burn. The detritus serves as fuel for fires. After the burn. Approximately one month after the controlled burn, virtually all of the biomass in this prairie is living.

54. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The intermediate disturbance hypothesis suggests that moderate levels of disturbance can foster higher diversity than low levels of disturbance The large-scale fire in Yellowstone National Park in 1988 demonstrated that communities can often respond very rapidly to a massive disturbance

55. LE 53-22 Soon after fire. As this photo taken soon after the fire shows, the burn left a patchy landscape. Note the unburned trees in the distance. One year after fire. This photo of the same general area taken the following year indicates how rapidly the com- munity began to recover. A variety of herbaceous plants, different from those in the former forest, cover the ground.

56. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Human Disturbance Humans are the most widespread agents of disturbance Human disturbance to communities usually reduces species diversity Humans also prevent some naturally occurring disturbances, which can be important to community structure

57. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ecological Succession Ecological succession is the sequence of community and ecosystem changes after a disturbance Primary succession occurs where no soil exists when succession begins Secondary succession begins in an area where soil remains after a disturbance

58. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Early-arriving species and later-arriving species may be linked in one of three processes: – Early arrivals may facilitate appearance of later species by making the environment favorable – They may inhibit establishment of later species – They may tolerate later species but have no impact on their establishment Retreating glaciers provide a valuable field- research opportunity for observing succession

59. LE 53-23 McBride glacier retreating Canada Alaska 1940 1941 1931 1911 1948 1912 1907 1879 1899 1948 Grand Pacific Gl. 1900 1935 1949 1913 1892 Riggs Gl. Muir Gl. Plateau Gl. McBride Gl. Casement Gl. 1860 Johns Hopkins Gl. Pleasant Is. Reid Gl. 1879 Glacier Bay 1760 1830 1780 Miles 15 Kilometers 10 5 5 0 0

60. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Succession on the moraines in Glacier Bay, Alaska, follows a predictable pattern of change in vegetation and soil characteristics

61. LE 53-24 Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant Dryas stage Spruce stage Nitrogen fixation by Dryas and alder increases the soil nitrogen content. Successional stage DryasPioneer Alder Spruce Soil nitrogen (g/m 2 ) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

62. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 53.4: Biogeographic factors affect community diversity Two key factors correlated with a community’s species diversity are geographic location and size

63. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Equatorial-Polar Gradients Two key factors in equatorial-polar gradients of species richness are probably evolutionary history and climate Species richness generally declines along an equatorial-polar gradient and is especially great in the tropics The greater age of tropical environments may account for the greater species richness

64. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Climate is likely the primary cause of the latitudinal gradient in biodiversity Two main climatic factors correlated with biodiversity are solar energy and water availability They can be considered together by measuring a community’s rate of evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration is evaporation of water from soil plus transpiration of water from plants

65. LE 53-25 Trees Tree species richness 180 160 140 120 100 80 0 Vertebrate species richness (log scale) 200 100 50 10 60 40 20 1,100900700 500 300 100 Actual evapotranspiration (mm/yr) Vertebrates 2,000 Potential evapotranspiration (mm/yr) 1,500 1,000 500

66. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Area Effects The species-area curve quantifies the idea that, all other factors being equal, a larger geographic area has more species A species-area curve of North American breeding birds supports this idea

67. LE 53-26 Number of species (log scale) 1,000 Area (acres) 10 10 9 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 3 10 4 10 5 1 10 100 10 1

68. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Island Equilibrium Model Species richness on islands depends on island size, distance from the mainland, immigration, and extinction The equilibrium model of island biogeography maintains that species richness on an ecological island levels off at a dynamic equilibrium point Studies of species richness on the Galápagos Islands support the prediction that species richness increases with island size

69. LE 53-27 Immigration and extinction rates Number of species on island Equilibrium number Immigration Rate of immigration or extinction Extinction Effect of island size Number of species on island Small island Immigration Rate of immigration or extinction Extinction Large island (large island) Immigration (small island) Extinction (large island) (small island) Effect of distance from mainland Number of species on island Far island Immigration Rate of immigration or extinction Extinction Near island (near island) Immigration (far island) Extinction (near island) (far island)

70. LE 53-28 Area of island (mi 2 ) (log scale) 400 Number of plant species (log scale) 1,000 100 10 1 0.1 200 100 50 25 10 5

71. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 53.5: Contrasting views of community structure are the subject of continuing debate In the 1920s and 1930s, two views on community structure emerged: the integrated hypothesis and the individualistic hypothesis

72. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Integrated and Individualistic Hypotheses The integrated hypothesis describes a community as an assemblage of closely linked species, locked into association by mandatory biotic interactions The individualistic hypothesis proposes that communities are loosely organized associations of independently distributed species with the same abiotic requirements The integrated hypothesis predicts that presence or absence of particular species depends on presence or absence of other species

73. LE 53-29a Environmental gradient (such as temperature or moisture) Population densities of individual species Integrated hypothesis

74. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The individualistic hypothesis predicts that each species is distributed according to its tolerance ranges for abiotic factors In most actual cases, composition of communities seems to change continuously, with each species more or less independently distributed

75. LE 53-29b Environmental gradient (such as temperature or moisture) Population densities of individual species Individualistic hypothesis

76. LE 53-29c Trees in the Santa Catalina Mountains Number of plants per hectare Moisture gradient Wet 600 400 200 0 Dry

77. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Rivet and Redundancy Models The rivet model suggests that all species in a community are linked in a tight web of interactions It also states that loss of even a single species has strong repercussions for the community The redundancy model proposes that if a species is lost, other species will fill the gap Community hypotheses and models represent extremes; most communities probably lie somewhere in the middle