1. © Food – a fact of life 2009 Historical changes in food technology and development of new products Foundation Hunter-gatherers Throughout the ages, people have hunted animals and gathered plants to use as food. In pre-historic times people would have eaten a wide variety of fruit, nuts, meat and roots, which they would have obtained from local surroundings. All the animals and plants would have been wild. The diet consisted of what was growing locally and animals which were easy to catch. The discovery of fire led to the realisation that it could be used to cook animals and plants to make them easier to eat, and tastier. The weather and the seasons would have affected the food supply available. In spring and summer, there would have been a glut of food. However, in the winter months, food would have been scarce. Methods of preserving foods, such as sun drying, salting, fermenting and smoking were used to help keep the food fit to eat longer. Modern preservation methods today still follow similar principles. Farmers The progress from hunting to farming took place gradually. Keeping animals and plants for food probably started around 12,000 BC. However, not all animals and plants that had been eaten previously could be produced on farms. By observing the usefulness and yield of different varieties, a small proportion of plants were selected for cultivation.

2. © Food – a fact of life 2009 Cultivation The first plants to be cultivated were the wild grasses which were developed into wheat, barley, oats, rye and millet. A few species of animals, such as goat, pig, sheep, were kept to produce food, i.e. meat and milk. Early farming began to reduce the time needed for hunting, and people began to move into settlements. Farming and trapping became full time activities. The settlements were vey basic, yet housed many people and their animals. The cultivated fields, which were worked by the people who lived nearby. This gradually led to the development of villages. Domestication During this period of early farming, domestication began to rise and spread. Domestication refers to the selection process of plants and animals to better suit the needs of human beings. There were also many technological developments in agriculture and animal husbandry. Stone polishing led to the making of new tools and utensils, such as hoes and ploughs. Querns of polished stone made it possible to grind grains into flour. Clay pots were made on potter’s wheels and were eventually fired and glazed.

3. © Food – a fact of life 2009 Varieties of food sources Through the centuries the process of producing new or improved strains of plants and animals has continued. From the vast array of crops used as food by the hunter-gatherers, people now use only 14 major cereal crops to provide food for the world. Rather than eating many different crops, a range of different food products is now made from a small number of staple foods, for example potatoes may still be manufactured into – crisps, extruded snacks, gnocchi, soup, chips, waffles, potato starch (used in instant desserts) and instant mash. Crops The most important staples in the world today are: Wheat, Maize, Rice, Potato, Rye, Oats, Cassava, Sweetpotato, Miolet, Yam, Plantain, Teff, Breadfruit and Taro. However, in isolated parts of the world some groups of people, such as the Wopkamin in Papua New Guinea, still use over 420 different varies of seeds, leaves, grain, bark, roots and animals for their food supply.

4. © Food – a fact of life 2009 Influential civilisations Throughout history civilisations around the world have introduced specific cooking, preserving and farming methods. Ancient Egypt showed aspects of: butchery bakery, e.g. bread, rough cakes and porridge fermentation, e.g. beer, yogurt and cheese drying, e.g. fruit and vegetables China and Japan showed aspects of: fermentation, e.g. soy sauce and tofu; rice production around 5000BC; freezing around 1800 BC. The Roman empire showed aspects of: transport, e.g. road system; farming on large scale; preservation, e.g. bottling.

5. © Food – a fact of life 2009 From farm to factory Between the 16 th Century and the early 18 th Century, farming technology developed very little. During the 16 th Century there were new farming tools, such as the first horse drawn hoe and field drill devised by Jethro Tull. Breeding of animals continued, with the introduction of new breeds of cattle which gave higher milk yields. Enclosure Acts In the reign of George III three million acres of common land were removed from common ownership by the ‘Enclosure Acts’. This meant that people lost arable land, grazing areas for their animals, scrub to collect fuel and sometimes even their small garden plots. The acts were devised to make better profits from more efficient agriculture. The effect for many people was poverty, poor diet, and loss of traditional cooking and preserving skills. Many villages were deserted and industrial centres grew as people were no longer able to make a living from the land and moved to towns.

6. © Food – a fact of life 2009 Before the Industrial Revolution In the 19 th Century, food was largely harvested by hand and cooked, as it had been for many centuries, in the home. However, a few basic food items such as bread, were available from bakeries. In fact the price and weight of bread was regulated as far back as 1267AD, by royal order. The production levels of bread were domestic, being based in simple kitchens with open fires and ovens. The Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution brought many technologies together, and provided new possibilities for investigation. Mechanisation took place, increasing the volume of production of goods, including food products. As more and more factories were built for mass production of goods, so towns and cities grew and populations expanded. This also meant that there were more people to feed.

7. © Food – a fact of life 2009 Housing The development of housing, which grew into towns around factories, allowed people to live closer to their work. However, it also prevented people from growing crops and rearing animals. In order to support this growing population food had to be processed and manufactured in factories. This in turn provided employment and a constant supply of food. Malnutrition Almost half the children born in towns died before they were five, and many who survived suffered from malnutrition. The diet of poor people working in the towns consisted of potatoes, bread and tea, with milk and sugar once a week and an occasional piece of bacon. Adulteration Adulteration is the process by which the quality or nature of a food is reduced by the addition of a foreign substance and the removal of a vital element. As there was a need for cheap food, nearly all food at this time was adulterated to make it go further. For example, oak leaves were added to tea and roasted corn was added to coffee. Eventually legislation was introduced to prohibit adulteration and set standards for food products.

8. © Food – a fact of life 2009 The war years The diet of most people hardly changed until the outbreak of war in 1914. At this time workers in the munitions factories were very important, and the need for adequate nutrition was recognised. By the end of the war there were a thousand industrial canteens supplying a million meals a day. For the first time workers in industry were provided with hot, well cooked meals at reasonable prices. After the war There was a period of intense trading in food-stuffs. For the first time people could eat fresh fruit in winter and much food started to come packaged under brand names that soon became familiar. The need for cooking in the home was reduced by the availability of processed foods, which as well as improving convenience, also provided consumers with far greater choice. Food science Many of the developments that followed relied on the food science and technology expertise that had been generated by the war. Much more was learnt about food manufacture and preservation, and industrial food manufacture became established.

9. © Food – a fact of life 2009 Factors affecting food technology Today, factors affecting food technology include: domestication of animals and crops preservation methods development of villages and towns changes of land ownership transport and travel (national, European, worldwide & space) war religion and culture famine drought, flood, disease mechanisation electricity discovery and use of raw materials understanding of scientific principles research and development of food ingredients increasing technological capabilities economic understanding and trade changes in society, e.g. the changing role of women changes in retailing

10. © Food – a fact of life 2009 The last 50 years Recent major developments since World War II have changed the way in which food is produced and manufactured today. - Technology has allowed advances in food processing, such as freeze drying and extrusion, and introduced ‘new’ food ingredients, such as Textured Vegetables Protein (TVP) and myco- protein. The use of biotechnology and nanotechnology is increasing. - Greater consumer awareness of nutrition, diet and health has led to new areas of food manufacture, and the formulation of food products with modified nutritional composition, for example, low fat spreads, low fat dairy products and low calorie drinks. - Genetic modification of ingredients has also been increasing. - Concern for the welfare of animals and humans in food production have also influenced the types of foods available and how they are produced.