1. Immanuel Kant and the Enlightenment Immanuel Kant: German (1724-1804) Enlightenment: 1700's (18th Century) Applies the new rational scientific method of the Scientific Revolution to the redesign and reformation of Social Institutions. Replaces the religious and psychological basis of morality with a purely impersonal and rational basis that applies equally to everyone.

2. The Good Will and Respect for the Law The Motive of actions matters and not their consequences. The only thing that is good in itself and without qualification is the Good Will. The Good Will acts out of no other motive but respect for the law. It is not motivated by pleasure or other consequences.

3. Imperatives An imperative commands or says to do something. "Write this down!" Hypothetical Imperative: If you desire X, then do Y. Commands something as a means to an end. If you want to get to New York, catch the next train. You can avoid the imperative if you opt out of the end or goal. Categorical Imperative: Commands something absolutely, without qualification, as good in itself, not good for something else. You cannot opt out of it. Morality involves categorical, not hypothetical, imperatives.

4. Rational Action Categorical Imperatives follow from the nature of reason itself, not reason as applied to some goal. Maxims for action: Rational action is based upon a motive described by the maxim of that action. Under conditions C, in order to achieve Goal G, I will perform Act A. Specifies conditions, end, and nature of the action.

5. The Categorical Imperative: The First Formulation Morality derives purely from logical consistency "Act only according to a maxim that you may at the same time consistently will to become a universal law." Sometime this is called universalizability. There are two ways in which a maxim might fail this test.

6. Two Tests of Universalizability 1. Consistency of the description of the action. Consistency of Conception. Does making the action universal undermine the very definition of the action. Example: Stealing. If everyone were to steal, there would be no personal property, and hence you could not steal. Example: Lying. If everyone were to lie, no one would believe anything anyone said, and, hence, it would be impossible to lie.

7. Test 2: Consistency of the Will. 2. Consistency of the motive of the universalized action. Consistency of the Will. Does making the action universal undermine the end of the maxim. Example: In order make things easier for me, I will never help other people. But if universal then no one would help me, contradicting my goal of making things easier for me. Example: In order to enjoy myself more fully, I will be lazy and not develop my talents. But if I do this, I will lack precisely the abilities I need to make my life enjoyable.

8. Duties Perfect Duties: These absolutely prohibit an action such as killing. These result from failing the first test, Consistency of Conception. You must abstain from these actions and have no choice in how you apply this. Imperfect Duties: These state a general duty to perform a positive action, but leave the choice of occasion to the agent. These result from a failure only of the second test, Consistency of the will. I have a duty to charity or to help others, but I can choose to whom I give.

9. Kant's Examples PerfectImperfectTo SelfNo SuicideDevelop your Talents To OthersNo Lying PromisesDuty to help others

10. The Second Formulation Respect for Persons "Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end." Never treat a person merely as a means to an end, as an object not a person. Is it OK to treat someone as a means, though not merely as a means?

11. Means and Ends and Human Dignity Means are instrumental goods, that are good only for something else. They are the objects of hypothetical imperatives. Ends are good in themselves, not in their relation to something else. They are the objects of categorical imperatives. A human being is said to have dignity because they are worthy of respect in themselves, not for some quality they possess that is useful in the way a tool or machine would be. The source of the dignity oh human beings is their rationality, as only the rational or good will is valuable in itself.

12. Formulations 3 and 4: Autonomy and Community Formulation 3: Always act according to a maxim such that you can always view yourself as at the same time creating or legislating a universal law of nature. Autonomy: The Rational Will gives itself the law. Formulation 4: Always act so as to promote a kingdom of ends, a community or ends in themselves that reciprocally recognize and honor each other's dignity and unconditional worth.

13. Summary Rationality of Motive not Consequences Matter Moral obligations are Categorical or Unconditional Moral actions should be unversalizable Humans should always treated as ends in themselves. Rational agents are autonomous and their dignity comes from that fact that they are autonomous centers of value. The aim of social organizations is to promote and allow a kingdom of ends.