1. Land and Water Use Part One 10-15% of AP exam

2. Table 12-1, p. 277

3. Agriculture 77% of world’s food comes from croplands 16% comes from grazing lands 7% comes from ocean resources Farms today are more like factories – 15% of US workforce produces food to feed entire country and for exporting Machinery allowed a farmer to work more land and do so more efficiently – Increased amount of fossil fuels needed Rise in agriculture tied to – New pesticides and fertilizers – Expanded irrigation – Development of new high-yield seed types – Decrease in genetic variability – Soil erosion

4. Traditional Agriculture and the Green Revolution Traditional subsistence agriculture- each family grew crops for themselves and families relying on animal and human labor – 42% of world’s population still practices Slash and burn- area is cut down and burned before planting with crops. Reduces amount of forest Green Revolution- time after Industrial Revolution when farming became more mechanized and crop yields boomed

5. Monotonous Monoculture Monoculture- just one type of plant is grown – Plantation farming: tropical areas cash crop (bananas, coffee or vegetables) Three grains provide more than half of the total calories that are consumed worldwide – Rice, wheat and corn Of 30,000 plant species used for food, only 10,000 used 90% caloric intake is supplied by 14 plant species Monoculture more prone to disease and stress

6. Fertilizers Development of inorganic fertilizers brought about huge increases in farm production Problems – Reduction of organic matter and oxygen in soil – Require large amounts of energy to produce, transport and supply – Can runoff into watersheds and cause cultural eutrophication Better choice- compost or humus

7. Reduced the number of crops lost to insects, fungi and other pests Estimated that average insect pesticide will only be useful for 5-10 years before target pest becomes immune to it (pesticide treadmill). Types of Pesticides – Insecticides: kill insects – Herbicides: kill plants and weeds – Acaricides: kill spider mites and ticks – Rodenticides: kill rats and mice – Fungicides: kill molds and fungus Pesticides

8. Pesticide Terms First Generation: Natural chemicals from plants (botanicals like pyrethrum) Second Generation: Created from a lab Broad spectrum: kills a variety of animals Persistent: stays in the environment Bioaccumulation and biomagnification

9. Chemical Types of Pesticides Pesticide TypeInformation about themChemicals Inorganic (minerals)Used for centuriesMercury, arsenic Biochemical pesticidesNaturally occurring that don’t kill insects. May interfere with mating, etc. Not toxic Hormones, sterile males Chlorinated hydrocarbons Neurotoxin, persistent, broad spectrum, banned in US, bioaccumulate DDT, chlordane, lindane OrganophosphatesBroad spectrum, low/moderate persistence, can contaminate water and toxic to humans Parthion, malathion (mosquito control) Carbamates (low persistence) Low persistence, toxicity variesUrethane, carbayl (Sevin), aldicarb (Temik) Microbial/biological agents Made specifically for certain pest, not persistent, low toxicity, chance of invasive Bacteria, ladybugs, lacewings, wasps

11. Fig. 12-20, p. 295

12. Solution! Integrated Pest Management Flexible and different application methods to kill insects and weeds Monitoring of economic thresholds between pest damage and pesticide cost and application

13. Pesticide Laws LawExplanation Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act Licensing of all pesticide products. Sets acceptable pesticide level limits in foods sold in the US Food Quality Protection ActAllows EPA to set limits on combined pesticide exposures. Also allowed EPA to examine inert pesticide ingredients (naphthalene is a carcinogen) Delaney ClauseProhibits adding cancer causing agents to food (focused now on food additives in processed foods but used to focus on pesticides)

14. Irrigation Advanced irrigation techniques that allowed crops to be planted in areas that normally would not have enough precipitation to sustain them Salinization- repeated watering causes buildup of salts in soil Solution- flood fields with massive amounts of water – Can waterlog plant roots – Causes water table in region to rise

15. Genetically Engineered Plants Take DNA from one species and splice it into the genetic material of another Enable us to develop foods with higher nutritional value, using less pesticides and herbicides. Can modify plants to grow closer together with less water and larger product that takes longer to spoil Problems – Pollen from GM plants can spread and hybrids form – Loss of indigenous plants like blue corn in Mexico – Allergies

16. Types of GM crops Insect resistance- bacterial gene in corn, cotton, potato and tomato plants Herbicide resistance- various genes into corn, soybeans, cotton, and rice Virus resistance- virus genes in squash, potatoes and zucchini Delayed fruit ripening- bacterial and viral genes in tomatoes Altered oil content- soybean and canola plants Pollen control- bacterial gene in corn

17. Fig. 12-16, p. 291

18. Dust Bowl 1930s droughts in Great Plains caused giant Dust Bowl Unites States Soil and Conservation Service (National Resources Conservation Service) was set up and passed – Soil Conservation Act 1935: set up conservation districts to education farmers on soil degradation

19. Solutions to Soil Degradation Contour plowing- rows of crops are plowed across the hillside instead of up and down Terracing- flat platforms that are cut into the hillside to provide level planting surface No Till Methods- plant seeds without using plow to turn the soil – Soil loses its carbon content during plowing, releasing CO 2 into atmosphere Crop rotation (covercrop)- adding legumes to cycle of crops, can also plant crops according to season so soil is always in use Intercropping (strip cropping)- planting brands of different crops – Prevent soil erosion by creating extensive root network

20. Contour Plowing Terracing of rice fields No till farmingCrop rotation Intercropping

21. Fig. 12-9, p. 286 NATURAL CAPITAL DEGRADATION Food Production Biodiversity LossSoilWaterAir PollutionHuman Health Loss and degradation of grasslands, forests, and wetlands ErosionWater wasteGreenhouse gas emissions (CO 2 ) from fossil fuel use Nitrates in drinking water (blue baby) Loss of fertility Aquifer depletion Pesticide residues in drinking water, food, and air Fish kills from pesticide runoff Salinization Increased runoff, sediment pollution, and flooding from cleared land Greenhouse gas emissions (N 2 O) from use of inorganic fertilizers Waterlogging Killing wild predators to protect livestock Contamination of drinking and swimming water from livestock wastes Desertification Pollution from pesticides and fertilizers Greenhouse gas emissions of methane (CH 4 ) by cattle (mostly belching) Loss of genetic diversity of wild crop strains replaced by monoculture strains Algal blooms and fish kills in lakes and rivers caused by runoff of fertilizers and agricultural wastes Bacterial contamination of meat Other air pollutants from fossil fuel use and pesticide sprays

22. Comparison of Conventional and Sustainable Farming Methods ParameterConventionalSustainable Altering landTill fields, irrigateMaintain natural environment Number of crops/fieldOneMany crops together HarvestAll at onceDifferent crops have different harvest times After harvestPlot is barePlot is never bare (covercrop) Susceptible to soil erosionYesNo Herbicide useYesNo (use IPM) Pesticide useYesNo (use IPM) Fertilizer useYesNo, compost/humus

23. Fig. 12-31, p. 307

24. Fig. 12-32, p. 308

25. Fig. 12-33, p. 310

26. Forest Resources Most of the trees in North America are young because most of the forests have been harvested and replanted. Deforestation- removal of trees for agricultural purposes or purposes of exportation – Developing countries do it to clear for pastures and farms – Developed for lumber, space for homes or agriculture

27. Types of forests Old growth, Pennsylvania Second growth, Washington Old growth forest- one that has never been cut – Contain high levels biodiversity – Multitudes of habitats – Highly evolved niches Second growth forest- cutting has occurred and new younger forest has arisen Plantations or tree farms- planted and managed trees of same age 95% of world’s forests Harvested for commercial use Olive Tree Farm

28. Vancouver Island, Canada Whole mountainsides stripped bare of centuries old forests Lumber industry does replant trees, those trees will not be harvested for 80 years Important source of income for the island

29. Tropical Rainforests Remove trees and replace with farms Soil in this biome is poor so it can only support crops for short period of time – Degrades the area further Creates a loss of biodiversity Erosion and depletion of nutrients in soil Forest Stewardship Council- developed certifying procedures based on standards that will encourage use of wood from sustainable forests

30. Sustainable Forestry Silviculture- management of forest plantations for purpose of harvesting timber Clear cutting- removal of all trees in an area – Done where there are fast growing trees Selective cutting (uneven-aged management)- removal of select trees in area – Trees take longer to grow – Shelter wood cutting- matures trees cut over a period of time, leaves some mature trees in place to reseed forest Agroforestry- trees and crops planted together – Mutualistic symbiotic relationship – Trees create habitats for animals – Roots stabilize and enrich soil

31. National Forest Policy Federal government owns 35% of all land in U.S. National Park System 1916- manage and preserve forests and grasslands Wilderness Preservation Areas- open only for recreational activities…no logging National Forests provide major sales for the timber industry – Since US can’t profit from timber sales, the government sells the timber well below its actual cost which basically means it is subsidized. Groups of federally controlled lands that permit logging – National Forest System – Natural Resource Lands – National Wildlife Refuges

32. Public and Federal Lands Public LandDesignated Use National Park SystemNational parks, historic sites/trails, preserves, lakeshores, rivers, seashores and recreation areas. This system manages these areas. National Wildlife Refuge System Habitats and havens for wildlife from Alaska to Florida. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service manages these lands. National Forest SystemThe U.S. Forest Service manages national forests and grasslands for mixed-commercial and recreational use National Resource LandsThe Bureau of Land Management operates all federal lands that not designated as forests, parks or wildlife refuges. These lands are areas that no one wanted during the settlement of the west and Alaska. They also have commercial and recreational uses.

33. Solutions to Logging Ban timber cutting in national forests Eliminate new road building in national forests Require that timber sales from national forests bring profit to the taxpayer based on market value Do not supplement the forest service budget through timber sales Recycle paper Leave dead trees, fallen timber and wood debris to maintain habitats, recycle nutrients and restore soil fertility

34. Policies on preserving public lands DateName of LawWhat it Does 1964Wilderness ActEstablished a review of road-free areas of 5,000 acres or more and islands within the National Wildlife Refuges or National Park System. This act restricted activities in these areas. 1968Wild and Scenic Rivers ActEstablished a national Wild and Scenic Rivers System for the protection of rivers with important scenic, recreational, fish and wildlife and other values

35. Natural Events in Forests Tree disease and pests – Affect quality of food – Affect number of trees available for use Forest fires- some trees need in order for seeds to germinate – Surface fires- burn only forests underbrush Protect forest from more harmful fires – Crown fires- start on ground or in canopies of forests that haven’t experienced surface fires Spread quickly – Ground fires- smoldering fires take place in bogs or swamps Can burn underground for days or weeks <- Ground fire Crown fire -> Surface fire

36. Protecting forests from damaging fires involves… Prevention- Education, issue burning permits, close areas of forests (for recreation) during times of drought Prescribed burning- Burn selected areas to prevent leaf litter buildup and reduce outbreaks of pests and diseases Presuppression- Detect and control fire at early stages, use firebreaks and fire roads Suppression- Fight the fire

37. Tend to be areas of low to moderate rainfall Consume 70% of grain crop in US Major problem: OVERGRAZING – Too many animals graze for too long a given area (exceed carrying capacity of land) – Removes vegetation and compacts the soil Overgrazing leads to – Desertification (occurs in droughts) – Loss of biodiversity (causes an increase in invasives) Rangelands

38. Feedlots Pack a ton of animals on a small plot of land Like a factory Animals given antibiotics because so close together and stressed- resistance Major problem: POOP Store manure in lagoons that can runoff and cause eutrophication in waterways and also contribute to disease with fecal coliform – Mad Cow Disease outbreaks! – E.Coli outbreak in spinach!

39. Rangeland Management Reduce the number of livestock on grazing lands Limit the number of ranchers that can use public lands Erect fences around streams and rivers to preserve them Prevent grazing on poorly conditioned rangelands Deferred grazing- move livestock between two or more grazing areas Ban feedlots, or provide better maintenance of lagoons (line them)

40. Ocean Resources Fishery- industry or occupation devoted to catching, processing or selling of fish, shellfish or other aquatic animals. 125 million tons of fish are harvested each year – 75% as human food, 25% “other uses” 12-mile limit- limited territory of each nation – 1960’s changed due to depletion at offshore fisheries – TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS!!! – Nations authorized to extend to 200 miles

41. By-catch and Overfishing Capture fisheries- fish are caught wild Techniques we use in capture fisheries – Drift nets: float through water and catch everything – Long lining: use of long lines with baited hooks – Bottom trawling: ocean floor scraped with heavy nets Problems – By-catch: any organism caught in net that’s not the target Solutions – Restrictions on use of driftnets – Installation of ribbons on bait hooks to scare away birds – Bans on bottom trawling

43. Solutions to Overfishing 47-50% of major fish stocks are fully exploited – 20% nearly overexploited – 10% depleted Aquaculture (fish farming)- raising aquatic species in captivity – Some fish raised totally in captivity – Some hatched in captivity but later released and then recaptured later (salmon) – Problems Accidental release into wild- new diseases Many fish raised are carnivorous so still need to get fish to feed them International Whaling Commission (1974)- regulates whaling for Norway (human consumption) and Japan (scientific use) – Japan apparently eats whales now – Tourism also affects whales

44. Fig. 12-18, p. 293

45. Two Endangered Aquatic Ecosystems Coral Reefs – Live in warm, shallow tropical waters – Created by cnidarians involved in symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae – Problems Coral bleaching due to higher water temperatures Mangrove Swamps – Coastal wetlands in tropical and subtropical areas – Nurseries for fish – Export nutrients to coastal food chains – Prevent shore erosion – Shield inland from storm damage – Threatened by Shrimp aquaculture Land degradation

46. Ocean Resource Laws and Regulations DateName of LegislationWhat it Did 1965Anadromous Fish Conservation Act Protect fish that live in the sea but grow up and breed in fresh water. 1976Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act Governed the conservation and management of ocean fishing 1972Marine Mammal Protection ActEstablished a federal responsibility for species of fish, wildlife and plants that are listed as threatened or endangered in the U.S. or elsewhere 1973Endangered Species ActProvided broad protection for species of fish, wildlife, and plants that are listed as threatened or endangered in the U.S. or elsewhere

47. Mining The excavation of earth for the purpose of extracting ore or minerals Mineral resources divided into two groups – Metallic: metals that are extracted through smelting – Nonmetallic: mined to be used in natural state Mineral deposit- area in which a particular mineral is concentrated Ore- rock or mineral from which a valuable substance can be extracted at a profit

48. Global Reserves MineralYears of Supply Bauxite (aluminum ore)152 Bronite (Copper ore)32 Iron Ore105 Nickel41 Zinc22 South Africa holds most of the minerals (Mn, Cr, Co, Pt)

50. Strip Mining Stripping the surface layer of soil and rock in order to expose a seam of mineral ore – Most extreme form is mountaintop removal Used mainly in coal mining Least expensive and least dangerous Overburden- the soil that is removed to get to the ore

51. Smelting and Refining Minerals Requires extensive energy input – Takes 15.7 kW of electricity to produce one kilogram of pure aluminum from its ore – Recycling aluminum requires only 5% of the energy required to smelt it. After smelted may be further processed – Aluminum is refined – Coal isn’t Sometimes combine metals to form a new product – Steel

52. Environmental Concerns of Mining Gangue- waste material from ore Tailings- piles of gangue Leaves pollutants when extract mineral – Acid mine drainage: Iron pyrite and sulfur are gangue of mining coal As water seeps through picks up sulfur which creates sulfuric acid that builds up in soil/local streams

53. Laws with Mining DateName of LegislationWhat it Did 1872Mining ActGoverned prospecting and mining of minerals on publicly owned land 1920Mineral Leasing ActPermitted the Bureau of Land Management to grant leases for development of deposits of coal, phosphate, potash, sodium, sulphur, and other leasable minerals on public domain lands 1980Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (Superfund) Regulated damage done by mining

54. Laws with Mining DateName of Legislation 1976Resource Conservation and Recovery Acts (RCRA) Regulated some mineral processing wastes 1977Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act Established a program for regulating surface coal mining and reclamation activities. It established mandatory standards for these activities on state and federal lands, including a requirement that adverse impacts on fish, wildlife, and related environmental values be minimized.