1. Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning Acquisition Acquisition Extinction Extinction Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Discrimination Stimulus Discrimination Shaping Shaping Chaining Chaining

2. Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning Acquisition – Acquisition – As in classical conditioning, acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning. As in classical conditioning, acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning. Extinction – Extinction – In operant conditioning, extinction refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by a reinforcer. For example, if you stop giving a rat food when it presses a lever, the rat will show a brief surge of responding (pressing the lever) followed by a gradual decline until it approaches zero. In operant conditioning, extinction refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by a reinforcer. For example, if you stop giving a rat food when it presses a lever, the rat will show a brief surge of responding (pressing the lever) followed by a gradual decline until it approaches zero.

3. Stimulus Generalization in Operant Conditioning Generalization refers to a behavior that spreads from one situation to a similar one. (A new stimulus is responded to as if it were the original) Generalization refers to a behavior that spreads from one situation to a similar one. (A new stimulus is responded to as if it were the original) For example: For example: Joe makes a wisecrack in his 1st hour biology class, and everyone laughs, even the teacher. Joe makes a wisecrack in his 1st hour biology class, and everyone laughs, even the teacher. Generalization= He makes wisecracks in other classes, in front of other teachers. Generalization= He makes wisecracks in other classes, in front of other teachers. A small boy pats two different dogs and both dogs wag their tails. A small boy pats two different dogs and both dogs wag their tails. Generalization= The boy assumes all dogs are friendly. Generalization= The boy assumes all dogs are friendly.

4. Stimulus Discrimination in Operant Conditioning Occurs when an organism responds to one stimulus, but not another one similar to it (Learning to tell the difference between one event or object and another; the reverse of generalization) Occurs when an organism responds to one stimulus, but not another one similar to it (Learning to tell the difference between one event or object and another; the reverse of generalization) Ex: Your cat runs to the sound of a can-opener which signals food, but not to the sound of the mixer. Ex: Your cat runs to the sound of a can-opener which signals food, but not to the sound of the mixer. Can sometimes happen when a subject no longer receives reinforcement for a certain behavior (or receives some sort of punishment/bad response) Can sometimes happen when a subject no longer receives reinforcement for a certain behavior (or receives some sort of punishment/bad response) For example: For example: Joe makes wisecracks in other classes, but when no one laughs or the teacher glares at him, he stops. He decides to tell jokes only during 1st hour. Joe makes wisecracks in other classes, but when no one laughs or the teacher glares at him, he stops. He decides to tell jokes only during 1st hour. The boy pats a third dog, and that dog bites him. He learns to tell the difference (discriminate) between dogs, or between situations that are not the same. The boy pats a third dog, and that dog bites him. He learns to tell the difference (discriminate) between dogs, or between situations that are not the same.

5. Shaping A procedure in Operant Conditioning in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer towards a goal. A procedure in Operant Conditioning in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer towards a goal. Successive approximations Successive approximations Ex: Learning how to swim in the deep end Ex: Learning how to swim in the deep end Shaping is key in pet tricks Shaping is key in pet tricks Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc. A manatee shaped to discriminate objects of different shapes, colors and sizes. A rat shaped to sniff mines.

6. Shaping in Pet Tricks Shaping basically breaks a certain behavior down into different parts, or steps. We start with step one, reinforce the subject when they perform that behavior, then move onto step two. Eventually we will have reinforced the subject through each step of the procedure, working our way to the desired behavior itself. Shaping basically breaks a certain behavior down into different parts, or steps. We start with step one, reinforce the subject when they perform that behavior, then move onto step two. Eventually we will have reinforced the subject through each step of the procedure, working our way to the desired behavior itself. Training a dog to jump through a hoop Training a dog to jump through a hoop Step 1: approach the hoop – dog is rewarded Step 1: approach the hoop – dog is rewarded Step 2: walk through the hoop as it is held vertically on the ground – dog is rewarded. Step 2: walk through the hoop as it is held vertically on the ground – dog is rewarded. Step 3: jump through hoop a few inches off the ground – dog is rewarded. Step 3: jump through hoop a few inches off the ground – dog is rewarded.

7. Shaping—an operant technique in which an organism is rewarded for closer and closer approximations of the desired response—is used in teaching both animals and humans. It is the main means of training animals to perform unnatural tricks. Breland and Breland’s (1961) famous subject, “Priscilla, the Fastidious Pig,” is shown above.

8. Ah, stupid pet tricks… Cat eats with fork and chopsticks Watch at home: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ypMl2RFTC9Y http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ypMl2RFTC9Y Skinner shaping pigeon Watch at home: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtfQlkGwE2U http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtfQlkGwE2U

9. Trial and Error Learning (like Thorndike’s cats) Tool-making abilities in the crow Tool-making abilities in the crow

10. Shaping a Monkey into a “Poker Chimp” Shaping was used to get chimps to perform tasks for food Shaping was used to get chimps to perform tasks for food Classical conditioning was then used to teach the chimps to associate poker chips with food. Classical conditioning was then used to teach the chimps to associate poker chips with food. Soon the chimps were performing tasks to get poker chips to exchange for food in the chip-o-mat Soon the chimps were performing tasks to get poker chips to exchange for food in the chip-o-mat Do you want to try to shape a classmate’s behavior?

11. CHAINING Learning simple skills, that when combined together enable the subject to perform more complex tasks. Learning simple skills, that when combined together enable the subject to perform more complex tasks. Chaining is used when there are multiple steps to a certain sequence that we want completed in a specific order. We begin by reinforcing each part of the sequence individually, then we move to linking the parts together and reinforcing the connections between the parts. Chaining is used when there are multiple steps to a certain sequence that we want completed in a specific order. We begin by reinforcing each part of the sequence individually, then we move to linking the parts together and reinforcing the connections between the parts. For example: For example: Learning a new dance – you learn the different steps or parts first, then you put the parts together like links in a chain. Learning a new dance – you learn the different steps or parts first, then you put the parts together like links in a chain. Dog shows Dog shows Reading, writing, math, sports, etc. Reading, writing, math, sports, etc. Watch a rat learn a chain of behaviors: http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=XpbBgxvVJeM http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=XpbBgxvVJeM The show Superfetch teaches more complicated dog tricks using chaining. Watch here: http://animal.discovery.com/videos/sup erfetch-cool-dog-tricks/ or http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e5Vl 2qgKS6M http://animal.discovery.com/videos/sup erfetch-cool-dog-tricks/ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e5Vl 2qgKS6M

12. Table 7.4 Myers: Psychology, Ninth Edition Copyright © 2010 by Worth Publishers Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

13. Cognitive Processes and Biological Restraints in Operant Conditioning

14. Skinner’s Legacy Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will. Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

15. Cognitive Learning Focuses on the mental processes involved in learning Focuses on the mental processes involved in learning How information is obtained, processed, and organized How information is obtained, processed, and organized Latent Learning Latent Learning Learned Helplessness Learned Helplessness Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

16. Latent Learning The word latent means "existing but previously unknown." Latent learning is learning that has taken place but doesn't show up until later. The word latent means "existing but previously unknown." Latent learning is learning that has taken place but doesn't show up until later. Learning occurs w/o reinforcement, but you don't really see it (it's not exhibited) until there is some reinforcement or incentive to demonstrate it. Learning occurs w/o reinforcement, but you don't really see it (it's not exhibited) until there is some reinforcement or incentive to demonstrate it. It is important to understand that there is a difference between learning and performance. Just because a behavior is not immediately demonstrated does not mean it hasn’t been learned. It is important to understand that there is a difference between learning and performance. Just because a behavior is not immediately demonstrated does not mean it hasn’t been learned. Examples: Examples: You are in a car going to school with a friend every day, but your friend is driving all the time. You may learn the way to get to school, but have no reason to demonstrate this knowledge. However, your friend gets sick one day and you have to drive yourself for the first time. If you can get to school following the same route you would go if your friend was driving, then you have demonstrated latent learning. You are in a car going to school with a friend every day, but your friend is driving all the time. You may learn the way to get to school, but have no reason to demonstrate this knowledge. However, your friend gets sick one day and you have to drive yourself for the first time. If you can get to school following the same route you would go if your friend was driving, then you have demonstrated latent learning. You have watched your mom make macaroni and cheese every week for years. You have never done it yourself and no one has asked you to do so. Then, one day, when you are 13 and your mom is in a hurry, she tells you that if you make dinner, you can have a sleepover. Voila! You know how to make the macaroni and cheese and do so successfully. Positive reinforcement causes you to perform, for the first time, a behavior you had already learned but maybe didn’t realize you’d learned. You have watched your mom make macaroni and cheese every week for years. You have never done it yourself and no one has asked you to do so. Then, one day, when you are 13 and your mom is in a hurry, she tells you that if you make dinner, you can have a sleepover. Voila! You know how to make the macaroni and cheese and do so successfully. Positive reinforcement causes you to perform, for the first time, a behavior you had already learned but maybe didn’t realize you’d learned.

17. The Discovery of Latent Learning In a classical experiment, Tolman and C.H. Honzik (1930), placed three groups of rats in mazes and observed their behavior each day for more than two weeks. In a classical experiment, Tolman and C.H. Honzik (1930), placed three groups of rats in mazes and observed their behavior each day for more than two weeks. The rats in Group 1 always found food at the end of the maze. The rats in Group 1 always found food at the end of the maze. Group 2 never found food. Group 2 never found food. Group 3 found no food for 10 days, but then received food on the eleventh. Group 3 found no food for 10 days, but then received food on the eleventh. Results: Results: The Group 1 rats quickly learned to rush to the end of the maze to find their food. The Group 1 rats quickly learned to rush to the end of the maze to find their food. Group 2 rats did not learn to go to the end. Group 2 rats did not learn to go to the end. Group 3 acted as the Group 2 rats until food was introduced on Day 11. Then they quickly learned to run to the end of the maze and did as well as the Group 1 rats by the next day. Group 3 acted as the Group 2 rats until food was introduced on Day 11. Then they quickly learned to run to the end of the maze and did as well as the Group 1 rats by the next day. This indicated that the Group 3 rats were learning how to get through the maze all along but had no reason to perform the behavior until an incentive (reinforcement) was introduced. This indicated that the Group 3 rats were learning how to get through the maze all along but had no reason to perform the behavior until an incentive (reinforcement) was introduced.

18. Tolman & Honzik, 1930 Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment). Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment). Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent only when an incentive is given. Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent only when an incentive is given. Figure 6.24: Latent learning. (a) In the study by Tolman and Honzik (1930), rats learned to run the complicated maze shown here. (b) The results obtained by Tolman and Honzik (1930) are summarized in this graph. The rats in Group C showed a sudden improvement in performance when a food reward was introduced on Trial 11. Tolman concluded that the rats in this group were learning about the maze all along but that their learning remained “latent” until reinforcement was made available. Read about how GPS systems might be destroying our ability to form cognitive maps: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/05/opinion/sunday/is- gps-all-in-our-head.html?_r=1&src=me&ref=general http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/05/opinion/sunday/is- gps-all-in-our-head.html?_r=1&src=me&ref=general

19. Learned Helplessness Martin Seligman developed this theory in the mid 1960s. Martin Seligman developed this theory in the mid 1960s. Learned helplessness is when a person starts to believe that their actions have no affect on their environment. Learned helplessness is when a person starts to believe that their actions have no affect on their environment. Seligman developed his theory through his research conditioning dogs. Seligman developed his theory through his research conditioning dogs. In this research, he placed dogs into hammocks and gave them periodic shocks which they could not escape. In this research, he placed dogs into hammocks and gave them periodic shocks which they could not escape. The next day, he placed the dogs into a box divided by a barrier that the dogs could easily jump over, and shocked the side that the dogs were on, expecting that the dogs would escape by jumping the barrier. However, most of the dogs made no attempt to escape and simply accepted the shocks. The next day, he placed the dogs into a box divided by a barrier that the dogs could easily jump over, and shocked the side that the dogs were on, expecting that the dogs would escape by jumping the barrier. However, most of the dogs made no attempt to escape and simply accepted the shocks. This caused Seligman to theorize that the dogs had learned that they had no control over the shocks because of the inescapable hammock shocks the day before, and because of this, when they were placed in a situation where they could control the situation, they believed that they were still helpless. This caused Seligman to theorize that the dogs had learned that they had no control over the shocks because of the inescapable hammock shocks the day before, and because of this, when they were placed in a situation where they could control the situation, they believed that they were still helpless. People who experience learned helplessness, who believe that what they do doesn’t really matter, tend to be less motivated, tend to stop trying, and may tend to experience lower self-esteem and depression. People who experience learned helplessness, who believe that what they do doesn’t really matter, tend to be less motivated, tend to stop trying, and may tend to experience lower self-esteem and depression. Ex: If students are passed despite failing grades, they learn not to put forth effort. Ex: If students are passed despite failing grades, they learn not to put forth effort.

20. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

21. Biological Predisposition Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors. Marian Breland Bailey Photo: Bob Bailey

22. Instinctual Drift Behaviorists believed that any operant principles could work on any response. Today, we know better! We cannot underestimate biological predispositions as it relates to learning responses. Instinctual drift refers to when an organism reverts to biologically predisposed patterns. The Brelands trained animals for roadside tourist attractions. Using standard conditioning techniques, they trained animals to perform complex behaviors for food reinforcement. But in each case, after the behavior was established, it was disrupted by the intrusion of some instinctive behavior used by that species to gather or prepare food. For example, they successfully taught a raccoon to deposit one wooden coin into a piggy bank (a metal container) for food reinforcement. But when the raccoon was given two coins, it started rubbing the coins together and dipping them (not dropping them) into the container. It was performing the motor program raccoons use to "wash" food in a stream. Rubbing two objects together is instinctual for raccoons and cannot be modified by conditioning or learning experiences. This interfered with the trick to such an extent the Brelands had to give up on it. Instead, they trained the raccoon to "play basketball." The basketball was so large that the raccoon did not attempt to wash it.

23. Applications of Operant Conditioning Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards. In School LWA-JDL/ Corbis

24. Applications of Operant Conditioning Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership. At work

25. Applications of Operant Conditioning At Home In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence. For example, this child has learned that tantrums only pay off when his parents are around to see them: http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_ embedded&v=KpSfThUv_pc http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_ embedded&v=KpSfThUv_pc http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_ embedded&v=KpSfThUv_pc