1. Part I: The Democracies Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

2. CHAPTER 2: BRITAIN Countries and Concepts: Politics, Geography, Culture 12/e By Michael G. Roskin Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Dinodia Stock Connection/Newscom

3. Geography: Invadability Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The last successful invasion of Britain came in 1066.  The English Channel isolated the country.  Politically this meant that Britain could develop institutions without foreign interference.  Militarily it meant Britain historically had a small army.

4. Why Britain Matters Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Many consider Britain’s path a model for reaching democracy.  Slow and with incremental changes.

5. Why Britain Matters Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Britain is a model parliamentary system – called the Wesminster model – which can be contrasted with the American presidential system  British politics makes use of a fusion of powers between the legislature and executive.  Because of the fusion of powers system, there is no “deadlock of democracy” in Britain.  In the British parliamentary system, the largest party forms the executive.

6. Impact of the Past Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Long ago, England suffered continual invasions at the hands of outsiders. Waves of Celts, Romans, Angles and Saxons, Danes, and finally Normans. A Celtic tribe known as the Britons gave their name to the entire island upon invasion. Angle invaders brought Anglish, or old English, between the 3 rd and 5 th centuries. The Celts were eventually pushed back to Wales and Scotland by the Angles and Saxon invaders. In the 9 th century, the Danish Vikings arrived. In 1066, William of Normandy launched a Norman invasion that resulted in the defeat of English King Harold at Hastings.

7. Impact of the Past Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The successful Norman invasion changed Britain drastically.  William replaced the Saxon ruling class with Norman nobles, who earned their fiefdoms by military service.  William introduced tightly controlled administrative units backed by military power.  William inventoried all of his land and people, which resulted in the Doomsday Book.  William introduced the Exchequer, or treasury minister, which is a position that still exists today.  William controlled England and parts of France, which led to several battles with France.

8. Impact of the Past: Magna Carta Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. The Normans brought feudalism from the Continent.  With feudalism, lords granted vassals land and protection for military service.  Feudalism arrives when central authority breaks down and the money economy disappears.  Land and fighting ability are all that matter. The mixed monarchy of the middle ages was a balance between kings and nobles. English history is predominantly about the struggle to hold the powers of the monarch in check.

9. Impact of the Past: Magna Carta Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Holding the king’s powers in check laid the foundation for English democracy. The Magna Carta was forced on King John at Runnymeade in 1215. Did not mention liberty of democracy. This great document set out to limit the powers of the monarch. The Magna Carta kept the monarchy in balance with the nobles. While England worked to check the monarch’s powers, many European countries trended towards absolutism and despotism.

10. Impact of the Past: The Rise of Parliament Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Needing taxes for wars in France in the 13 th century, English monarchs began calling 2-4 knights from each shire to London, as well as a similar number of burghers. This invited local notables to take part in the affairs of the state. This gave birth to Parliament, which began as an extension of the king’s court. Over time, Parliament began to take on a life of its own.

11. Impact of the Past: The Rise of Parliament Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Knights and burghers formed a lower house, the House of Commons. Nobles and top churchmen formed an upper house, the House of the Lords. The House of Lords was originally more powerful, but overtime was pushed aside by the growing House of Commons. A leading member of the House of Commons was the Speaker, who was eligible to speak directly to the king. At this time, Commons was not a representative body, but did limit the power of the king.

12. Impact of the Past: Henry VIII Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Henry VIII – reigned 1509-1547 – gave Parliament a major boost when he declared a partnership with Parliament in his effort to break from Rome and the Catholic church. Henry needed the Pope to grant him a divorce. The Pope refused this request. Henry summoned Parliament in 1529 to get Catholic influence out of England. Parliament created the Anglican Church.

13. Impact of the Past: Henry VIII Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. This lead to Henry getting his much needed divorce. This also meant that England avoided conflicts between pro-church and anti-clerical forces that plagued much of the European continent at the time. The states was stronger than its most influential church. This made it easier to secularize society in England With all of this, Henry unknowingly started an institutional shift from monarch to Parliament.

14. Comparison: Common Law Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  One of England’s Lasting Contributions was common law.  Common law was developed on the basis of precedent, or judge-made law.  The Normans set up central courts to systematize the local laws and produce a “common law” for all of England.  Based on case law, common law differs from code law.  Code law is based on fixed legal codes rather than precedent and case study.  Code law is essentially Roman law, and is used through much of continental Europe.  Common law is much more flexible.

15. Impact of he Past: Parliament Versus the King Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  In the late 15 th century, many European monarchs expanded their powers and undermined feudal mixed monarchs.  Many monarchs claimed divine rule.  According to many philosophers and political theorists of the time, sovereignty rested with the crown.  By 1660, absolutism had spread throughout Europe.  This was not the case in England.  However, 17 th century England was not trouble-free.  This trouble would eventually result in Parliament gaining more ground and taking more power from the monarchs

16. Impact of the Past: Parliament Versus the King Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Trouble began with James I.  When he took the throne, James I brought notions of absolute rule with him from Scotland.  James I united the crowns of England and Scotland, which later became a single country with the 1707 Act of Union.  James I conflicted not only with Parliament, but with puritans as well. By this time, Parliament felt equal with the king, and superior in raising revenues. James I tried to raise taxes without Parliament’s consent, and this led to his ouster. Charles I, son of James I, replaced his father at the throne in 1625. Charles I fared worse than his father, and in 1649 was tried and beheaded after the English Civil War (1642-1648).

17. Impact of the Past: Cromwell’s Commonwealth Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. England had no king from 1649-1660. Oliver Cromwell led the army, which led England in the absence of a king. Cromwell imposed a military dictatorship, and in 1653 declared himself Lord Protector. Under Cromwell, England became a republic called the Commonwealth. Cromwell died in 1658, Parliament then invited Charles II to take the throne.

18. Impact of the Past: The Glorious Revolution Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Charles II was pro-Catholic and issued a Declaration of Indulgence in 1673. This Declaration aimed to lift laws against Catholics and non-Anglican protestants. Parliament blocked the Declaration, and James II took the throne after Charles II died in 1685. James II issued a Declaration of his own, and was then dumped in favor of a new royal family. Parliament invited the Protestant daughter of James II, Mary, and her Dutch husband, William, to assume the throne.

19. Impact of the Past: The Glorious Revolution Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. This was known as the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Parliament became supreme, and in 1689 issued a Bill of Rights spelling out Parliament’s relationship to the crown.  This ultimately meant no new laws or taxes without the consent of parliament.  In 1714, Parliament invited George I from Hanover (Germany).  Today’s royal family are descendents of George I.

20. Impact of the Past: The Rise of the Prime Minister Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. George I gave executive power to his cabinet. The cabinet had a first minister, or prime minister. The first was Sir Robert Walpole (1721-1742). The cabinet slowly began to take on its present form, but was limited in two ways:  The prime minister could not pick his ministers.  The cabinet was not responsible to parliament.  Following George III and the American Revolution, cabinet was made responsible to Parliament.  This also began the tradition of government – never written into law – consisting of the leader of the largest party and whoever he/she picks.

21. Impact of the Past: The Democratization of Parliament Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Parliament was officially supreme by the late 18 th century, but it was not representative. Parties began to form under Charles II when the Whigs and Tories first appeared. This Whigs and Tories represented both the opposition and supporters of Charles II. During the 19 th century, a two-party system began to emerge with the Whigs growing into the liberal party and Tories into the conservatives.

22. Impact of the Past: The Democratization of Parliament Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Yet, even during this time, members of Parliament were not ordinary people.  The Lords were hereditary peers and the Commons was filled with the better off. This was known as Whig democracy.  With the advent of the industrial revolution, and the rise of the working and middle classes, pressure was on for more expansive political participation.  Both the Whigs and Tories initially fought the extension of political rights.  The Whigs realized that extending political rights would bring stability and increase the size of their support base. This would lead to the Reform Act of 1832, and the Tories would then follow suit.

23. Impact of the Past: The Rise of the Welfare State Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. By the start of the 20 th century, with working men voting, British parties had to pay attention to demands for welfare measures.  This would include calls for public education, housing, jobs, and health care. The expansion of the electorate led to the expansion of the the welfare state. This led to the creation of the Labour Party in 1900, who then pushed the Liberal Party into third party status.

24. Comparison: The Origins of Two Welfare States Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Both Britain and Sweden are Welfare States. The latter more than the former.  How did this come to be? In the 1520s, just before Henry VIII in England, Sweden broke from Rome. Both states set up churches dependent on the state and eliminated the church as a source of opposition. This avoided clerical-anticlerical divisions, and the major split that emerged was along class lines. Both states developed uncorrupt and efficient civil services. Workers organized into labor unions that led to moderate worker- oriented parties, Labour in Britain and Social Democrats in Sweden. These parties saw their preferences for welfare policies implemented. Even more so in Sweden because the Social Democrats have often controlled government since 1932.

25. The Key Institutions Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The British constitution is not exactly unwritten.  Britain uses the following as legal guidelines: Common law Historic Charters Statutes  There is nothing that can be declared unconstitutional without a written constitution.  In 2000, Britain adopted the European Convention on Human Rights.  This Convention gave Britain something like the U.S. Bill of Rights.  In 2009, Britain gained a relatively weak Supreme Court.

26. The Key Institutions: The Monarch Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The crown is now a term for the executive in Britain.  There is an important difference between head of state and chief of government.  The monarch, as head of state, is dignified.  The prime minister (PM), as chief of government, is efficient.  Some have called for reforms to the monarchy. Tim Hales/AP Photo

27. The Key Institutions: The Cabinet Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Cabinet members are Members of Parliament (MPs).  Most ministers are higher-ups in their party.  Before becoming ministers, most start as MPs and then move to junior ministers.  Ministers are not necessarily experts in their portfolio.  Ministers tend to be picked on the basis of political qualifications.  PMs pick ministers in such a way that balances viewpoints and party factions.  Cabinet government has declines, and PM tends to develop policy with a smaller circle and informs the cabinet later.  The British cabinet straddles the gap between the legislature and the executive.  This is the basis of fusion of powers.

28. The Key Institutions: The Cabinet Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The cabinet practice “collective responsibility,” and sticks together in public and supports the PM.  The cabinet does not have a fixed number of ministries.  Leaders from the House of Commons and House of Lords are in the cabinet, as is the chief secretary for the cabinet.  Specialized offices are held by junior ministers and parliamentary private secretaries.  Below cabinet rank are non-cabinet departmental ministers and junior ministers.  At any given time, there are approximately 100 MPs serving in the executive.  The cabinet, and executive as a whole, is what forms the government.  In 2010, Britain had their first hung parliament in over a century.  This produced Britain’s first coalition since WWII, and the cabinet was split between Tories and Liberal Democrats.

29. The Key Institutions: The Prime Minister Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The PM is the linchpin of the British system.  The PM holds the power in the British system.  The prime minister picks and controls the cabinet.  The prime minister comes from the largest party.  Party discipline aids the prime minister.  Whips make sure MPs show for divisions.  Fear of losing the next election helps to keep the prime minister in check.  Elections are every five years at the latest.

30. The Key Institutions: The Prime Minister Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The PM needs to be aware of intra-party factions and other divisions.  Legislation originates with the PM and goes from the executive to the commons. Zang Yixinhua/Corbis

31. Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The PM can be ousted through backbencher revolts or a vote of no confidence.  The PM calls for new elections, which must happen at least one every five years.  By-elections can come whenever.

32. Personalities: David Cameron Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  David Cameron is the leader of the Conservative Party, and became PM in 2010 at the age of 44.  Cameron a descendent of nobility and a graduate of Oxford.  Cameron lost his first bid for election in 1997, but won in 2001.  Cameron became party leader in 2005.  Cameron sees himself as a moderate and tries not to be overly ideological.

33. Who Was When: Britain’s Postwar Prime Ministers Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

34. Democracy: Prime Ministers into Presidents Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Political scientists have noted that prime ministers are becoming more like presidents.  British PMs have increasingly consolidated power at the expense of their cabinets and Commons.  PMs are no longer seeing themselves as first among equals, and preside over enlarged cabinets and a staff.  PMs spend less time in Commons.  Amassing personal power as PM goes against British tradition.  Why has this happened?  Some argue that PMs are “control freaks.”  A long-term explanation is the impact of television.  The decline of legislatures, growth in interest groups, and voters concentrating in the center.  Parliamentary system can no longer operate as before.

35. The Key Institutions: Commons Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The cabinet is really a committee of the Commons sent from Westminster to Whitehall.  Although much political theory says that the legislature naturally pre-dominates, it is the PM that leads and controls the Commons in Britain.  There are two main parties in the Commons.  Labour Party  Conservative Party  The largest is Her Majesty’s Government, the other is Her Majesty’s Loyal Opposition.  Today there is 650 members of the Commons.

36. The Key Institutions: Commons Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Parliament opens in November with a speech from the Queen.  The Queen reads a speech prepared by the PM about the government's agenda for that year. AP Photos/Landov

37. The Key Institutions: Commons Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  All legislation is produced by the government and passes intact because of party discipline.  There is no bipartisanship in the Commons.  Few MPs specialize, and it was not until 1979 that fourteen committees were introduced in the Commons.  These select committees resemble the American Congressional committees.  Commons, like many legislatures, is declining in importance.

38. Parliamentary Versus Presidential Systems Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

39. The Key Institutions: Lords Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Since 1958, distinguished Britons have been named Lords or Ladies of the Realm for their lifetimes.  In 1999, the House of Lords turned to life peers rather than hereditary peers.  Today, the House of Lords has 740 peers with 92 hereditary and 26 top churchmen.  With the House of Lords, the British Parliament is bicameral.  However, the Lords are weaker relative to their counterparts in the Commons.  The 1911 Parliament Act allows Lords to delay financial legislation up to 30 days, and other bills up to two years.  The Lords can amend bills, but a simple majority in Commons will override such changes.  Even though they are weaker, the Lords still serve as a check to the prime minister.

40. The Key Institutions: The Parties Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The party that wins the majority of seats in Commons controls Commons.  British parties tend to be cohesive, centralized, and ideological.  Britain has a two-plus party system where smaller parties such as the Liberal Democrats can win seats.  As part of the 2010 coalition deal with the Liberal Democrats, Tories consented to a referendum that would have reformed the electoral system.  The referendum proposed changes the electoral system from FPTP to AV.

41. The Key Institutions: Britain’s Two-Party System Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Britain uses a first-past-the-post (FPTP) electoral system, or single-member districts with plurality.  An AV system lets voters rank candidates.  If none get more than half of first preferences, there are additional rounds of counting where the second preferences cast for weaker candidates are redistributed until there is a winner with half.  This system is considered majoritarian because it yields a single dominant party in Parliament.  Smaller parties in Britain would like a proportional representation (PR) system because it would allow them to gain seats in Parliament.

42. British Political Culture Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Social class is important in Britain. There are two ways to analyze social class:  Subjectively  Objectively In Britain, the primary class distinction is between working class and middle class. Objectively, the distinctions between classes in Britain are not any greater than in the rest of West Europe.

43. Geography: Centers and Peripheries Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  A country’s capitol is often called its “center.”  Those areas closer to its boundaries are often called the peripheries.  These peripheries are often new additions with distinct cultures or other differences from the rest of the countries.  Center-periphery tensions are a reality for most countries.  Over time, England acquired Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Today they retain Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.  There are feelings of resentment in these places with London.

44. British Political Culture: Public Schools Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. A key question is whether or not Britain is a meritocracy. Today, “public schools” play an important role in training British youth for military service, civil service, and politics. Only seven percent of British youth attend public schools, but they account for 40 percent of those entering either Cambridge or Oxford. This serves to generate what is called an old boy network.

45. British Political Culture: Public Schools Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Britain has a problem with educational quality and equality.  Only 65 percent of British 17 year olds are still enrolled in school.  Better off and wealthy families send their children to “public schools.”  Middle class families send their children to private day schools  Working class families send their children to mediocre state-funded schools.

46. British Political Culture: Oxbridge Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. The real path to power in Britain is through either Oxford or Cambridge. Nearly half of Conservative MPs attended either Oxford or Cambridge, and about one-quarter of Labour MPs attended one the two schools. However, higher education has become more accessible in Britain. Nearly 40 percent of secondary graduates are now attending college. An Oxbridge degree trains students for life in politics. Some foreign students attend Oxford on a Rhodes Scholarship.

47. British Political Culture: Class and Voting Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Britain used to be example of class voting. Working class voters were said to identify more with Labour; middle class with the Conservatives. Class voting is not absolute and changes overtime. People will vote outside of their respective class. Class voting has declined in Britain, as it has in many industrialized countries. Today, class + region has more explanatory power.

48. Geography: The 2010 Election, region and class Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Electoral geography is a long lasting feature in most countries.  As in Britain, how a country voted in the past is a good predictor of how it will vote in the future.  Although they lost overall, Labour performed above its national average in certain areas.  Social class also impacted Labour’s final vote tally in 2010.  Region plus class can predict the British vote.

49. Political Culture: The Shape of the British Electorate Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Is is said that democracy functions best with a center-peaked electorate.  A center-peaked distribution of voters encourages center-seeking politics rather than extremist politics.

50. British Political Culture: British Civility Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  British civility is about limits.  Nothing is allowed to go too far.  Nonetheless, heckling is allowed in Parliament.  This is seen as a test by opponents.  There are examples of public civility as well in terms of debate, but also plenty of examples incivility in public life.  Civility might be overstated in Britain.

51. British Political Culture: Pragmatism Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Political culture in Britain is practical and there is an appreciation for what works best regardless of theory or ideology. Of the two parties, the Conservatives are more pragmatic. However, within the parties there have been breaks from Pragmatism.  For example, based on ideological differences and how far left the party should go, the Labour Party split in 1981 and this led to the formation of the Social Democrats. There are occasional ideological flare-ups and ideology has a place in British politics, but it is not held over practical approaches.

52. British Political Culture: Traditions and Legitimacy Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Traditions and symbols are an important part of political culture everywhere. Traditions and symbols help preserve a system’s legitimacy. With legitimacy, people are willing to obey authority. Britain’s legitimacy and authority were famous, but maybe oversold as well. 1970s violence Handgun violence 2005 subway bombings

53. British Political Culture: The Ulster Ulcer Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Northern Ireland (Ulster) shows how a system with widespread legitimacy fails without it. Northern Ireland is a split society. The Northern Ireland problem dates back to the eight centuries England ruled Ireland. Many in Ireland wanted home rule, especially after English Malthusians let the Irish starve in mid-19 th century potato famine. In 1949, with the exception of six counties in the north. Orangemen there want to remain with Britain, while Catholics want to be a part of Ireland. In 1968, Catholic protests started a civil rights-like movement. The Irish Republican Army enrolled, and Protestants the same. Over 3,600 people died between 1968-1998, when a power sharing agreement between the two sides in Ulcer was reached.

54. British Political Culture: A Changing Political Culture Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Britain was once considered a model of stability, moderation, justice, and niceness. However, this portrayal was over-spoken. There are two ways observations of a country’s political culture can err. Overly favorable views Timing (of study) matters

55. Patterns of Interaction Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Parties project images, while voters adopt party identifications. The strategy for a party is to project an image with mass appeal and create permanent loyalty with voters. In Britain, both image and identification are reasonably clear. However, neither image nor identification are fixed. Swing voters are very important, especially in SMD systems. The goal is to mobilize the base and capture swing voters. SMD systems exaggerate percentage trends and give out large majorities of seats.

56. Democracy: 2010, A Hung Parliament Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The 2010 general election voted out the Labour Party after 13 years in office, but did not quite vote in the Conservative Party.  Neither party won a majority, a rarity in majoritarian systems, and something that last happened in 1974.  This produced a hung parliament.  This led to a coalition between Conservatives and Liberal Democrats.

57. Patterns of Interaction: National and Local Parties Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The national party and constituency parties bargain over potential local candidates for Commons.  The central (party) office in London plays an important role in candidate selection.  Both sides have veto power.  There are no requirements to live in the district one seeks to represent.  Candidates hope to get safe-seat districts.  Unsafe seats are proving grounds for up and coming politicians.

58. Patterns of Interaction Politics within Parties Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Parties are a balancing act, as party leaders must address party interests and factions. Labour Party leaders are elected at an annual convention. Conservative Party leaders are elected by their fellow Conservative MPs. Both parties have ideological wings that must be balanced with the moderate voting public.  Labour Left vs. Labour Right  Some Marxists and Trotskyists have wom seats.  Traditional Tories (wets) vs. Thatcherites/neoliberals (dries)  Euroskeptics vs. Euroenthusiasts

59. Patterns of Interaction: Parties and Interest Groups Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Behind the scenes, politicians strike deals with interest groups representing industry, commerce, professions and labor.  A large fraction of the British electorate belongs to one of these groups.  Today, 25 percent of the British workforce belongs to a union.  Labor unions are constituent members of Labour, and play an important role in party affairs.  The most important of these unions is the Trade Union Congress (TUC).  Conservative Party members share a close relationship the the Confederation of British Industry (CBI).  The CBI supports pro-business policies and subsidies.

60. Patterns of Interaction: The Parties Face Each Other Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Elections happen quickly, but they are permanent. The opposition is always looking to toss the majority party out of office. One of the ways that this is accomplished is through Question Hour. During Question Hour, the opposition attempts to publically challenge the cabinet or PM and the majority party’s agenda and policies.

61. Patterns of Interaction: The Cabinet and the Civil Servants Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Ministries come and go, and the highest civil servants are the permanent secretaries.  Permanent secretaries tend to last longer than ministers.  Compared to other bureaucrats, they earn more money and have higher status (including knighthood in some cases.  Permanent secretaries are very important and very hard to dismiss.  Permanent secretaries are assisted by layers of deputy secretaries, undersecretaries, and assistant secretaries.  These are not temporary appointments.  They are knowledgeable in their ministries, which the minister relies on for day-to-day operations.  The Treasury is the most powerful.

62. Patterns of Interaction: The Civil Service and Interest Groups Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Interest groups work behind the scenes with the bureaucracy. With Parliament hamstrung by party discipline and PMs, the bureaucracy is a natural target for special interest. Unions tend to battle within parties, but business interests within the government. Civil servants can have client-like relationships with interest groups. This pattern has been reinforced by the interchanges between civil service and private industry.

63. Patterns of Interaction: How Democratic is Britain? Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Does the role of civil servants reduce the degree of democracy in Britain?  Civil servants are not accountable to the public.  Civil servants make policy without popular input.  At the same time, there is no such thing as a democratic system where everyone gets to decide everything.  Fear of electoral accountability among elected officials – rule of anticipated reactions – keeps the system democratic.

64. What Britons Quarrel About: The Political Economy of Britain Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The 2008-09 financial meltdown hurt Britain as much as the U.S.  Conservatives decried stimulus packages, while liberals favored stimulus and said early deficit reduction might produce another recession.  Liberals took the Keynesianism approach. John Maynard Keynes argued that deficit spending would increase demand and employment. Daniel Deme/Corbis

65. What Britons Quarrel About: Cameron’s “Big Society” Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Cameron was more of a traditional Torie than some Thatcherites wished.  Cameron proposed a “Big Society” to reduce government responsibilities and lessen London’s role as problem solver. This was a combination of free market and volunteerism.  Cameron proposed drastic spending cuts (austerity). This led to peaceful and more violent protests.  Tory popularity dropped while Labour popularity rose.  Britain had been in economic decline for decades.  What began as a relative decline became an absolute decline in the 1970s.  There was desindustrialization.  The 2008-09 recession revived old debates about Britain’s economic problems and the cures provided by former PM, Margret Thatcher.

66. Democracy: Pluralistic Stagnation Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The late Harvard political scientist Samuel Beer offered another explanation for Britain’s decline.  Beer noted that pluralism, something long celebrated as an essential component of democracy, was to blame for Britain’s problems.  Beer noted two specific problems:  Pluralistic stagnation caused by too many interest groups making demands on parties that in turn made too many promises.  A 1960s counterculture that was more vociferous with their demands

67. What Britons Quarrel About: The British Disease Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Through most of the 1970s, Britain was experiencing a relative economic decline. Thatcherites blamed the size of the welfare state, which allowed many to consume without producing. Concessions to unions lowered productivity. Britain was introduced to inflation, and the cure was found in Milton Friedman’s monetarist theory. Thatcher cut bureaucracy, the growth of the welfare state, and industrial subsidies. Unemployment rose to 14 percent at one point, and economic problems worsened before they got better. All the while, Thatcher would not back down.

68. What Britons Quarrel About: The British Disease Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  By the time the Tories left office in 1997, the picture was mixed but generally positive.  Privatization was the norm, there was increased competition with less regulation, and the system was friendlier to home- buyers.  Unions had eased demands and membership had dropped sharply.  Weak firms went under, but smaller and more productive firms sprang-up; Capital and labor went to winning industries.  Workers were jolted out of the trade union complacency.

69. What Britons Quarrel About: The British Disease Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  At the same time, income inequality grew under Thatcher’s watch.  Thatcher was never able to get a handle on entitlements.  Welfare benefits actually climbed under Thatcher.  A credit and spending boom in the late 1980s brought some inflation back and the economy was reintroduced to recession.  Thatcher was most successful in changing the terms of the debate, going from the welfare state to a debate about productivity.  The main flaw for Thatcher was that her policies increasingly depended on debt.

70. What Britons Quarrel About: “Pluralistic Stagnation” Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. The late Harvard political scientist Samuel Beer offered another explanation for Britain’s decline. Beer noted that pluralism, something long celebrated as an essential component of democracy, was to blame for Britain’s problems. Beer noted two specific problems:  Pluralistic stagnation caused by too many interest groups making demands on parties that in turn made too many promises.  A 1960s counterculture that was more vociferous with their demands.

71. What Britons Quarrel About: Trouble with National Health Care Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. The National Health Service (NHS) began after 1948, when the Labour party had to make commitments to working Britons. The success of the NHS has long been debated. Britons spend nine percent of their GDP on health care (Americans spend 16 percent). Although the British population is much healthier, the costs of the NHS have risen significantly. The NHS is the third largest employer in the world. Consumes nearly 20% of the annual budget. The primary question is how the NHS should continue to be funded.

72. Comparison: The Cost of the Welfare State Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Welfare states are expensive and it takes all types of taxes to pay for welfare states.  Below are 2009 spending and taxes in various industrialized countries as percentages of GDP.

73. Comparison: The Productivity Race Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  Measuring productivity is a measurement of efficient production.  Increasing productivity usually means increased prosperity.

74. What Britons Quarrel About: Britain’s Racial Problems Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  British society is split along racial and religious lines.  Around seven percent of the population is nonwhite.  There have been moment of significant racial and religiously motivated violence in Britain.  The problem dates back to the British empire, when subjects were welcome to work in the United Kingdom.  This remained true after decolonization, when newly independent states remained a part of the Commonwealth.

75. What Britons Quarrel About: Britain’s Racial Problems Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  With foreign workers, resentment grew among Britain’s working class.  This was particularly true in geographic areas of economic decline.  This has given rise to right-wing nationalist parties like the British National Party.  Two forces keep Muslims segregated.  Discrimination  Efforts by Muslims to preserve their own culture.  The Tories tend to be more anti-immigration.  Britain is faced with an age old question of how does a tolerant society handle militant intolerance?  The 2005 subway bombings in London revealed a problem with radical Islam.

76. Devolution for Scotland and Wales Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Britain is a unitary state, but over the years has become less centralized. Britain has experienced center-periphery tensions between London and the peripheral areas of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Whales. Beyond regional resentment, there has been some growth in regional nationalism as well. This has benefited the Labour Party to some degree. Labour has been more open to ideas of devolution, or home rule. Under Labour Party rule, both Scotland and Whales obtained regional assemblies in 1999. However, a previous 1977 devolution bill failed in referendums. This has given way to what some call quasi-federalism.

77. What Britons Quarrel About: Britain and Europe Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Until recently, many Britons did not identify with Europe. Did not join the EU’s Common Market forerunner. Focused on ties with the United States. Britain stayed out of the 1957 Treaty of Rome, which eventually led to the formation of the European Union (EU) in 1993. In 1969, Britain was ready to join the European Community (EC) but there was much debate about how it would impact Britain’s market- place and the competitiveness of their goods and services. In 2010, the UK Independence Party (UKIP) won three percent of the vote. Britain did not officially join the EC until 1973. Pro-EU thinkers argue that Britain needs the competition that the EU brings, and argue that Britain needs to see itself as a part of continental Europe.

78. What Britons Quarrel About: Britain and Europe Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.  The EU and Europe debate cuts across party lines.  Britons were offered a 1975 referendum – by Labour – on staying in the EC.  British citizens voted to stay in the EC, but 33 percent rejected the idea of the EC at the same time. It is likely that if it had been put to a referendum, British voters would have rejected the 2007 Lisbon Treaty as well.  Tories like the common market, but not infringement on sovereignty.  They – and many British citizens – have rejected the euro and European Monetary Union (EMU).  There is much debate about the EU and Europe between euroenthusiasts and euroskeptics.  Britain shows that progress is never unilinear.