1. Chapter 21 The Revolution in Politics The Revolution in Politics 1775-1815 1775-1815

2. French Revolution Timeline

3. French Revolution Timeline (cont’d.)

5. Background  When Louis XIV died in 1715, he left France deeply in debt due to his wars of aggression.  France was a prosperous country, but the monarchy was approaching bankruptcy.  Bankruptcy in 2 forms:  Financial  Effective leadership

6. Background (cont’d.)  Louis XIV’s successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI, proved incapable of dealing with the government’s financial and administrative problems.

7. Liberty, Equality, and the American Revolution Why an era of revolution? Why an era of revolution? A consequence of the Enlightenment and its emphasis on individualism. A consequence of the Enlightenment and its emphasis on individualism. Fundamental was the popular demand for liberty and equality. Fundamental was the popular demand for liberty and equality. Liberty = human rights, freedoms, popular sovereignty. Liberty = human rights, freedoms, popular sovereignty. Equality = equal rights, equality of opportunity. Equality = equal rights, equality of opportunity.

8. Liberty, Equality, and the American Revolution (cont’d.) American Revolution released the 13 British colonies from British power. American Revolution released the 13 British colonies from British power. American colonists believed they had the power to make their own laws. American colonists believed they had the power to make their own laws. Increased taxation escalated the discontent of the colonists. Increased taxation escalated the discontent of the colonists.

9. Liberty, Equality, and the American Revolution (cont’d.) Americans actually paid very low taxes. Americans actually paid very low taxes. British wanted them to pay their share of imperial expenses. British wanted them to pay their share of imperial expenses. Parliament passed the Stamp Act to raise revenue. Parliament passed the Stamp Act to raise revenue. Conflict then broadened to issues of representation, right to legislate, and control over colonial legislatures. Conflict then broadened to issues of representation, right to legislate, and control over colonial legislatures.

10. Liberty, Equality, and the American Revolution (cont’d.) British refusal to compromise and revolutionary fervor moved the crisis to open hostilities. British refusal to compromise and revolutionary fervor moved the crisis to open hostilities. Armed conflict began in April 1775. Armed conflict began in April 1775. Declaration of Independence. Declaration of Independence. French assistance. French assistance. British recognition of independence. British recognition of independence.

11. Liberty, Equality, and the American Revolution (cont’d.) U.S. Formed and defined by the Constitution. U.S. Formed and defined by the Constitution. Federal system with right to tax and regulate trade. Federal system with right to tax and regulate trade. Representative self-government. Representative self-government. System of checks and balances of government’s powers. System of checks and balances of government’s powers.

12. Liberty, Equality, and the American Revolution (cont’d.) Impact on Europe Impact on Europe Reinforced the central ideas of reformers and of the Enlightenment: Reinforced the central ideas of reformers and of the Enlightenment: Individual liberty Individual liberty Representative government Representative government Possibility of a better world Possibility of a better world

13. The French Revolution 1789-1791 The Old Regime  Louis XV (1715-1774)  From 1743 to the end of his reign, Louis XV acted as his own chief minister.  Lazy, possessed few skills, and generally unaware of his government’s problems.

14. The Old Regime (cont’d.)  Financial and Administrative Problems.  Debt worsened by Seven Years’ War.  Administrative chaos –Ill defined and overlapping functions of various agencies. –No strong administrative figure to provide a sense of order and direction.

15. The Old Regime (cont’d.)  Demands of the Nobility.  Campaigned for restoration of traditional political rights lost as kings moved to establish absolute monarchy.  Wanted to share power with the king.

16. The Old Regime (cont’d.)  Louis XVI (1774-1792).  Grandson of Louis XV.  Queen was Marie Antoinette, the daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria.  Ill-fated attempts to resolve financial and economic problems. –Jacques Turgot –Jacques Necker

17. The Old Regime (cont’d.)  Jacques Turgot (1727-1781)  Controller general of finances.  Sought to cut government spending and abolish trade guilds –Guilds served to restrict the growth of the French economy.  Proposed ending the corvee, which required peasants to work on roads.  Opposed by the nobility and dismissed after only 20 months.  Symbolic of the inability of the French monarchy to deals with its problems.

18. The Old Regime (cont’d.)  Jacques Necker (1732-1804)  Swiss banker who succeeded Turgot.  Instead of promoting reform, Necker continued the practice of borrowing money and increasing spending.  Dismissed in 1781 and recalled in 1788 as the fiscal crisis intensified.

19. The Estates General ► French consultative assembly. ► July 1788, summoned by Louis XVI in an attempt to win popular support for new taxes. 1 st meeting since 1614! ► The Estates General represented the 3 legally defined classes (estates).  The First Estate---the clergy  The Second Estate---the nobility  The Third Estate---the peasants, middle class, and urban workers.

20. The Estates General (cont’d.) ► The First Estate---the clergy ► Consisted of all clergy, but dominated by the higher clergy.  Drawn from the ranks of the nobility  Sizable incomes while parish priests lived much like the people they served.  Exempt from direct taxes.

21. The Estates General (cont’d.) ► The Second Estate---the nobility ► Numbered around 400,000 people. ► Held a virtual monopoly on the highest and best- paid positions in the state and church. ► Owned about 20% of the land. ► Exempt from direct taxes.

22. The Estates General (cont’d.) ► The Third Estate---the peasants, middle class, and urban workers. ► All who were not clergy or nobility.  Peasants  Middle class (bourgeoisie)  Urban workers (proletariat) ► 98% of French population (approx. 25m)

23. The Third Estate (cont’d). ► Peasants ► Free of serfdom and many owned the land they farmed.  Others were tenant farmers. ► Exploited by the government and the nobility.  Taxes  Rent to noblemen who once controlled the land.  Corvee ► Mostly concerned with tax relief and an end to manorial obligations.

24. The Third Estate (cont’d.) ► The Middle Class ► Townspeople who were better off than peasants, but even more discontented.  Wanted mercantilist economic restrictions abolished.  Fairer taxes.  Greater voice in public affairs.

25. The Third Estate (cont’d.) ► Urban Workers ► Relatively small. ► Numerous enough to play a significant role in the revolution.

26. Elections for Estates General ► Elections and composition of the Estates.  300, 300, 600 ► Held amid significant social unrest.  Bad harvest of 1788.  Pamphleteering. ► Meetings produced elections, but also documents expressing grievances and reform proposals.

27. Demands on the Monarchy ► Nobles demand constitutional monarchy.  Shared control. ► Third Estate demand end to special privileges of the clergy and nobility.  Abolition of salt tax (gabelle) and corvee.  Middle class demand for aboliton of mercantilist restrictions on trade and industry.  Court reform.  Constitutional monarchy with elected parliament and guarantees of civil liberties.

28. Voting by Order ► First meeting of the Estates General, 5/5/89. ► Louis XVI ordered the Estates to meet separately and vote by order (block).  Result?????

29. Revolution Phase I: The National Assembly 1789-1791  June 17, 1789: 3 rd Estate proclaims itself to be the “National Assembly”.  Invited other two estates to join it.  June 20, 1789: The Tennis Court Oath  National Assembly locked out of usual meeting place—locks changed.  Met at an indoor tennis court.  Assembly would not disband until it had given France a constitution.  Backed by large part of 1 st Estate, particularly parish priests.

30. Revolution Phase I: The National Assembly (cont’d.)  Louis XVI vs the National Assembly  Continued insistence that the Estates meet separately.  Assembly should disband.  National Assembly defied king.  June 27, 1789, Louis XVI gave in and ordered the 3 estates to meet together.  Control was in the hands of middle class moderates and liberal nobility.

31. Revolution Phase I: The National Assembly (cont’d.)  Louis XVI masses Swiss and German mercenaries in Paris and Versailles.  Hoped to reassert his authority.  Rumor was that king would use the mercenaries to disperse the Assembly.  July 11, 1789: riots in the streets of Paris.

32. Revolution Phase I: The National Assembly (cont’d.)  July 14, 1789: The Storming of the Bastille  Fortress prison—a symbol of the arbitrary rule of the Bourbons.  Jean Bailly became mayor of Paris.  Marquis de Lafayette became commander of newly created National Guard.  Red, White, and Blue Tricolor flag of the revolution adopted.  Aristocrats flee France.

33. Revolution Phase I: The National Assembly (cont’d.)  Summer 1789: The Great Fear  Rumors of impending famine  Rumors of bandits, paid by the king or nobility, roaming countryside attacking peasants.  Spread of revolutionary fervor among the peasants.  August 4, 1789: Assembly ends corvee and privileges of the nobility.  All French citizens now equal in the eyes of the law.

34. Revolution Phase I: The National Assembly (cont’d.)  Aug. 27, 1789: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.  Represents the aspirations of the middle class in particular.  All men are born free and equal in rights  These rights included liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.  Freedoms of speech, press, assembly, religion & right to petition the govt.  Freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment.  Popular sovereignty.

35. Revolution Phase I: The National Assembly (cont’d.)  Mob Action  Autumn, 1789: King moves to Versailles.  Rumors of armed force to be used by the king to restore his authority.  Oct. 5/6, mob led mostly by women enraged by bread prices march to Versailles.  King and family agree to return to Paris.

36. Revolution Phase I: The National Assembly (cont’d.)  The Political Clubs  Consisted mostly of middle class business and professional men.  Met to discuss the issues of the day.  Came to exert a major influence on the course of the revolution.

37. The Political Clubs  The Jacobin Club—the most famous.  Initially moderate, but became more radical.  Abolition of the monarchy & establishment of a republic.  Maximilien Robespierre  The Cordeliers---radicals like the Jacobins.  Georges-Jacques Danton  Jean-Paul Marat  The Feuillant Club---more conservative.  Supported limited monarchy  Ultimately suppressed by the Jacobins.

38. Revolution Phase I: The National Assembly (cont’d.)  The Civil Constitution of the Clergy  November 1789: Assembly confiscated land owned by the Roman Catholic Church.  Attempting to deal with the financial crisis.  Assembly issued assignats (paper money) using the confiscated lands as security.  Assignats declined in value rapidly.  Church has lost major revenue source, so the government assumes obligation of paying the salaries of the clergy.

39. Revolution Phase I: The National Assembly (cont’d.)  The Civil Constitution of the Clergy (cont’d.)  Assembly reorganized the administration of the church and adopted the Civil Constitution 7/12/89.  Required popular election of bishops and priests.  Required an oath of allegiance from the clergy.  Over 50% refuse to swear the oath and became bitter opponents of the revolution, as did many faithful Catholic laypeople.

40. Revolution Phase I: The National Assembly (cont’d.)  The Constitution of 1791  June 20, 1791: Louis XVI and family fled Paris, intending to leave France.  Captured and returned to Paris.  Sept. 14, 1791: Louis XVI accepts a new constitution.  Limited monarchy  Separation of powers—3 branches  King and advisers to make up executive branch  A one-house parliament—the Legislative Assembly

41. Revolution Phase I: The National Assembly (cont’d.)  Other reforms:  Abolished titles of nobility.  Abolished noble courts.  Abolished the use of torture.  Juries introduced in the trial of criminal cases.  Reorganized local government.  83 departments.

42. Revolution Phase I: The National Assembly (cont’d.)  Other reforms (cont’d.):  Abolished guilds.  Ended mercantilist restrictions on trade and industry.  System of direct and indirect taxes ended.  Abolished private tax collection.  Land tax and profit tax introduced.

43. Revolution Phase II: The Legislative Assembly (1791-1792) Established under the Constitution of 1791 Established under the Constitution of 1791 1 st meeting: 10/1/1791 1 st meeting: 10/1/1791 Lasted less than 1 year. Lasted less than 1 year. Conservatives and moderates weakened. Conservatives and moderates weakened. Radicals, who wanted to push the revolution further, strengthened. Radicals, who wanted to push the revolution further, strengthened. Girondists Girondists Mountain Mountain Jacobins Jacobins Cordeliers Cordeliers

44. Revolution Phase II: The Legislative Assembly (1791-1792) (cont’d.) Intervention of Foreign Powers Intervention of Foreign Powers Declaration of Pillnitz, 8/27/91: Declaration of Pillnitz, 8/27/91: Prussia & Austria declare readiness to intervene to protect royal family and safeguard the monarchy. Prussia & Austria declare readiness to intervene to protect royal family and safeguard the monarchy. Prussia & Austria conclude an alliance. Prussia & Austria conclude an alliance. 4/20/92: Legislative Assembly declares war on Austria. 4/20/92: Legislative Assembly declares war on Austria.

45. Revolution Phase II: The Legislative Assembly (1791-1792) (cont’d.) War of the First Coalition War of the First Coalition France vs Austria & Prussia France vs Austria & Prussia Within a year, France at war with most of Europe. Within a year, France at war with most of Europe.

46. Revolution Phase II: The Legislative Assembly (1791-1792) (cont’d.) Radical Takeover Radical Takeover Radical elements control revolution Radical elements control revolution “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” 8/10/92: mob storms Tuileries Palace, massacring king’s Swiss Guards. 8/10/92: mob storms Tuileries Palace, massacring king’s Swiss Guards. Louis XVI fled to, and was taken prisoner by, the Legislative Assembly. Louis XVI fled to, and was taken prisoner by, the Legislative Assembly. Assembly voted to depose the king and called for elections for a National Convention to draft a constitution for a French republic. Assembly voted to depose the king and called for elections for a National Convention to draft a constitution for a French republic.

47. Revolution Phase III: The National Convention (1792-1795) First meeting: 9/21/92. First meeting: 9/21/92. Proclaimed France a republic. Proclaimed France a republic. Ruled France for the next 3 years. Ruled France for the next 3 years. Dominated by radicals (formerly the Mountain). Dominated by radicals (formerly the Mountain). Robespierre, Danton, Marat, and Duke of Orleans (aka, Philippe Egalite). Robespierre, Danton, Marat, and Duke of Orleans (aka, Philippe Egalite). Supported by municipal govt. of Paris and the mob: Supported by municipal govt. of Paris and the mob: aka, sans-culottes aka, sans-culottes

48. Revolution Phase III: The National Convention (1792-1795) (cont’d.) Execution of Louis XVI Execution of Louis XVI 12/92: Louis found guilty of “conspiracy against the liberty of the people and security of the state.” 12/92: Louis found guilty of “conspiracy against the liberty of the people and security of the state.” 1/93: National Convention, by 1 vote margin, decided to execute the king. 1/93: National Convention, by 1 vote margin, decided to execute the king. 1/21/93: Louis XVI beheaded. 1/21/93: Louis XVI beheaded.

49. Revolution Phase III: The National Convention (1792-1795) (cont’d.) Draft constitution approved, establishing a democratic republic. Draft constitution approved, establishing a democratic republic. Suspended for the duration of the war and never went into effect. Suspended for the duration of the war and never went into effect.

50. Revolution Phase III: The National Convention (1792-1795) (cont’d.) Reforms enacted by the National Convention Reforms enacted by the National Convention Slavery abolished in French colonies. Slavery abolished in French colonies. Primogeniture abolished. Primogeniture abolished. Metric system of weights and measures adopted. Metric system of weights and measures adopted. Imprisonment for debt abolished. Imprisonment for debt abolished. Estates of noble emigres confiscated. Estates of noble emigres confiscated. Land sold to peasants in 2-3 acre parcels. Land sold to peasants in 2-3 acre parcels. Almost all peasants became landowners. Almost all peasants became landowners.

51. Revolution Phase III: The National Convention (1792-1795) (cont’d.) Reforms (cont’d.) Reforms (cont’d.) Adoption of a new calendar Adoption of a new calendar Sept. 22, 1792: 1st day of year one of French Republic. Sept. 22, 1792: 1st day of year one of French Republic. Year of 12 months associated with seasons and climate established. Year of 12 months associated with seasons and climate established. Week extended to 10 numbered days in order to eliminate Sunday. Week extended to 10 numbered days in order to eliminate Sunday.

52. Revolution Phase III: The National Convention (1792-1795) (cont’d.) Foreign and Domestic Threats Foreign and Domestic Threats Conflict with Prussia & Austria widened to include G.B., Holland, Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Sardinia. Conflict with Prussia & Austria widened to include G.B., Holland, Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Sardinia. Prussians drove the French out of Belgium. Prussians drove the French out of Belgium. National Convention ordered conscription of some 300k men. National Convention ordered conscription of some 300k men.

53. Revolution Phase III: The National Convention (1792-1795) (cont’d.) Foreign and Domestic Threats (cont’d.) Foreign and Domestic Threats (cont’d.) Opposition to National Convention mounted in rural areas. Opposition to National Convention mounted in rural areas. 3/93: revolt in the Vendee, sw of Paris. 3/93: revolt in the Vendee, sw of Paris. National Convention dealing now with threats of counterrevolution and a foreign war. National Convention dealing now with threats of counterrevolution and a foreign war.

54. Revolution Phase III: The National Convention (1792-1795) (cont’d.) The Reign of Terror The Reign of Terror To combat the crisis, 4/93, Convention established the Committee of Public Safety. To combat the crisis, 4/93, Convention established the Committee of Public Safety. Exercised dictatorial control. Exercised dictatorial control. Danton, Robespierre, Marat, and Lazare Carnot (military specialist). Danton, Robespierre, Marat, and Lazare Carnot (military specialist). The moderate, Danton, purged by radical Jacobins. The moderate, Danton, purged by radical Jacobins.

55. Revolution Phase III: The National Convention (1792-1795) (cont’d.) Reign of Terror (cont’d.) Robespierre and radical Jacobins take full control of the government. Summer ‘93 thru summer ‘94: Extreme violence in the name of a “republic of virtue”. Trials by revolutionary tribunal. Approx. 16k victims including queen, Danton, and Philippe Egalite.

56. Revolution Phase III: The National Convention (1792-1795) (cont’d.) French Military Victories French Military Victories Levee en masse: 8/93, Carnot ordered conscription of all able-bodied men. Levee en masse: 8/93, Carnot ordered conscription of all able-bodied men. 1793-94: French army successfully defended France from invasion. 1793-94: French army successfully defended France from invasion. 1794-95: French occupation of Low Countries, Rhineland, parts of Spain, Switzerland, and Savoy. 1794-95: French occupation of Low Countries, Rhineland, parts of Spain, Switzerland, and Savoy.

57. Revolution Phase III: The National Convention (1792-1795) (cont’d.) French Military Victories (cont’d.) French Military Victories (cont’d.) By Treaties of Basel, 3 & 6, 75, war with Prussia and Spain ended. By Treaties of Basel, 3 & 6, 75, war with Prussia and Spain ended. War with Austria and G.B. Continued. War with Austria and G.B. Continued. 1796: French invaded Italy, forcing Austrians out of the war. 1796: French invaded Italy, forcing Austrians out of the war. 1797: War of the First Coalition ended; only G.B. Still at war with France. 1797: War of the First Coalition ended; only G.B. Still at war with France.

58. Revolution Phase IV: The Thermidorean Reaction and the Constitution of 1795 Early 1794: Opposition to Robespierre mounted. Early 1794: Opposition to Robespierre mounted. 9 Thermidor (7/27/94): Robespierre arrested by a group of conspirators. 9 Thermidor (7/27/94): Robespierre arrested by a group of conspirators. Beheaded the next day along with others responsible for the Reign of Terror. Beheaded the next day along with others responsible for the Reign of Terror. Wealthy middle class took control of the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety. Wealthy middle class took control of the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety.

59. Revolution Phase IV: The Thermidorean Reaction and the Constitution of 1795 National Convention prepared a new constitution. National Convention prepared a new constitution. The Constitution of Year III (the Constitution of 1795). The Constitution of Year III (the Constitution of 1795). 2 house parliament consisting of the Council of Elders (250) and the Council of 500. 2 house parliament consisting of the Council of Elders (250) and the Council of 500. Executive authority invested in a 5 man Directory elected by the Council of Elders. Executive authority invested in a 5 man Directory elected by the Council of Elders. National Convention dissolved 10/26/75. National Convention dissolved 10/26/75.

60. Revolution Phase V: The Directory (1795-1799) Problems faced by the Directory: Problems faced by the Directory: Severe financial crisis Severe financial crisis Out of control inflation Out of control inflation Serious food shortages Serious food shortages Rampant corruption Rampant corruption Exhaustion from years of turmoil Exhaustion from years of turmoil Directory relied on the army for support. Directory relied on the army for support.

61. Revolution Phase V: The Directory (1795-1799) 18 Brumaire (11/9/99), Gen. Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the Directory and established a military dictatorship. 18 Brumaire (11/9/99), Gen. Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the Directory and established a military dictatorship. End of revolutionary decade started in 1789. End of revolutionary decade started in 1789. Some reforms, but no workable system of govt. Some reforms, but no workable system of govt. Privileges abolished. Freedom of religion. Equality of all citizens before the law. Privileges abolished. Freedom of religion. Equality of all citizens before the law.