1. Making of Cement

2. WHAT IS CEMENT .
A powdery substance made by calcaning lime and clay, mixed with water to form mortar or mixed with sand, gravel, and water to make CEMENT.
A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term opus caementicium to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt limeas binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives that were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment, and cement.

3. Types of Cement Gray Ordinary Portland Cement White Portland Cement
Our Gray Ordinary Portland Cement is a high-quality, cost-effective building material
White Portland Cement
White Portland Cement, manufacture this type of cement with limestone, low iron content kaolin clay, and gypsum.
Oil-well Cement
Our oil-well cement is a specially designed variety of hydraulic cement produced with gray Portland clinker. It usually forges slowly and is manageable at high temperatures and pressures.

4. Cement History
Throughout history, cementing materials have played a vital role. They were used widely in the ancient world. The Egyptians used calcined gypsum as a cement. The Greeks and Romans used lime made by heating limestone and added sand to make mortar, with coarser stones for concrete.

5. The invention of portland cement usually is attributed to Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, Yorkshire, England, who in 1824 took out a patent for a material that was produced from a synthetic mixture of limestoneand clay. He called the product “portland cement” because of a fancied resemblance of the material, when set, to portland stone, a limestone used for building in England. Aspdin’s product may well have been too lightly burned to be a true portland cement, and the real prototype was perhaps that produced by Isaac Charles Johnson in southeastern England about The manufacture of portland cement rapidly spread to other European countries and North America. During the 20th century, cement manufacture spread worldwide. By the early 21st century, China and India had become the world leaders in cement production, followed by the United States, Brazil, Turkey, and Iran.

6. Raw materials used in the manufacture of portland cement  (percentage composition)
CaO
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MgO
loss on ignition
limestone 52 3 1
0.5 42
chalk 54
0.2
0.3 43
cement rock 11 2 36
clay 57 16 7 14
slag 34 15 4

7. Controls strength and soundness Sillica (SiO2) 20-25
Ingredient
%age
Effect
Lime (CaO)
60-65
Controls strength and soundness
Sillica (SiO2)
20-25
Gives strength, excess quantity causes slow setting
Alumina (Al2 O3)
4-8
Quick setting, excess lowers strength
Iron Oxide (Fe2 O3)
2-4
Imparts color, helps in fusion of ingredients
Magnesium Oxide (MgO)
1-3
Color and hardness, excess causes cracking
Na2 O
Controls residues, excess causes cracking
Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)
1-2
Makes cement sound

8. Calcium
Silicon
Aluminum
Iron
Limestone
Clay
Marl
Shale
Iron ore
Calcite
Sand
Fly ash
Mill scale
Aragonite
Aluminum ore refuse
Blast furnace dust
Sea Shells
Rice hull ash
Cement kiln dust
Slag

9. Functions of Ingredients in Cement
1. Function of Lime in Cement
It is the major constituent of cement . Its exact proportion is important.
The excess makes the cement unsound and causes the cement to expand and disintegrate.
In case of deficiency, the strength of cement is decreased and cement sets quickly.
The right proportion makes cement sound and strong.
2. Function of Silica in Cement
It imparts strength to the cement due to formation of di-calcium silicate (2CaO SiO2 or C2S) and tri-calcium silicate (3CaO SiO2 or C3S).
Silica in excess provides greater strength to the cement but at the same time it prolongs its setting time.

10. 3. Functions of Alumina in Cement
It imparts quick setting quality to the cement.
It acts as a flux (rate of flow of energy) and lowers the clinkering temperature.
Alumina in excess reduces strength of cement.
4. Functions of Iron Oxide in Cement
It provides color, hardness and strength.
It also helps the fusion of raw materials during manufacture of cement.

11. Portland cement
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Portland cement is made up of four main compounds: tricalcium silicate (3CaO · SiO2), dicalcium silicate (2CaO · SiO2), tricalcium aluminate (3CaO · Al2O3), and a tetra-calcium aluminoferrite (4CaO · Al2O3Fe2O3). In an abbreviated notation differing from the normal atomic symbols, these compounds are designated as C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF, where C stands for calcium oxide (lime), S forsilica, A for alumina, and F for iron oxide. Small amounts of uncombined lime and magnesia also are present, along with alkalies and minor amounts of other elements. The composition ranges of various kinds of portland cement are shown in the table.

12. Cement testing Fineness
Various tests to which cements must conform are laid down in national cement specifications to control the fineness, soundness, setting time, and strength of the cement. These tests are described in turn below.
Fineness
Fineness was long controlled by sieve tests, but more sophisticated methods are now largely used. The most common method, used both for control of the grinding process and for testing the finished cement, measures the surface area per unit weight of the cement by a determination of the rate of passage of air through a bed of the cement. Other methods depend on measuring the particle size distribution by the rate of sedimentation of the cement in kerosene or by elutriation (separation) in an airstream.

13. Soundness Setting time
After it has set, a cement must not undergo any appreciable expansion, which could disrupt a mortar or concrete. This property of soundness is tested by subjecting the set cement to boiling in water or to high-pressure steam. Unsoundness can arise from the presence in the cement of too much free magnesia or hard-burned free lime.
Setting time
The setting and hardening of a cement is a continuous process, but two points are distinguished for test purposes. The initial setting time is the interval between the mixing of the cement with water and the time when the mix has lost plasticity, stiffening to a certain degree. It marks roughly the end of the period when the wet mix can be molded into shape. The final setting time is the point at which the set cement has acquired a sufficient firmness to resist a certain defined pressure. Most specifications require an initial minimum setting time at ordinary temperatures of about 45 minutes and a final setting time no more than 10 to 12 hours.

14. Strength
The tests that measure the rate at which a cement develops strength are usually made on a mortar commonly composed of one part cement to three parts sand, by weight, mixed with a defined quantity of water. Tensile tests on briquettes, shaped like a figure eight thickened at the centre, were formerly used but have been replaced or supplemented by compressive tests on cubical specimens or transverse tests on prisms. TheAmerican Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 
specification requires tensile tests on a 1:3 cement-sand mortar and compressive tests on a 1:2.75 mortar. The British Standards Institution (BSI) gives as alternatives a compressive test on a 1:3 mortar or on a concrete specimen. An international method issued by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) requires a transverse test on a 1:3 cement-sand mortar prism, followed by a compressive test on the two halves of the prism that remain after it has been broken in bending. Many European countries have adopted this method. In all these tests the size grading of the sand, and usually its source, is specified

15. Types of Portland cement
There are five types of portland cement, designated Types I-V. Physically and chemically, these cement types differ primarily in their content of C3A and in their fineness. In terms of performance, they differ primarily in the rate of early hydration and in their ability to resist sulfate attack. The general characteristics of these types are listed in Table . The oxide and mineral compositions of a typical Type I portland cement were given in Table

16. Fairly high C3S content for good early strength development
Classification
Characteristics
Applications
Type I
General purpose
Fairly high C3S content for good early strength development
General construction (most buildings, bridges, pavements, precast units, etc)
Type II
Moderate sulfate resistance
Low C3A content (<8%)
Structures exposed to soil or water containing sulfate ions
Type III
High early strength
Ground more finely, may have slightly more C3S
Rapid construction, cold weather concreting
Type IV
Low heat of hydration (slow reacting)
Low content of C3S (<50%) and C3A
Massive structures such as dams. Now rare.
Type V
High sulfate resistance
Very low C3A content (<5%)
Structures exposed to high levels of sulfate ions
White
White color
No C4AF, low MgO
Decorative (otherwise has properties similar to Type I)

17. Cement Manufacturing Process Phase 1:
Raw Material Extraction
Cement uses raw materials that cover calcium, silicon, iron and aluminum.  Such raw materials are limestone, clay and sand. Limestone is for calcium. It is combined with much smaller proportions of sand and clay. Sand & clay fulfill the need of silicon, iron and aluminum.
Extraction of raw material and crushing of material

18. Cement Manufacturing Process Phase II:
Proportioning, Blending & Grinding
The raw materials from quarry are now routed in plant laboratory where, they are analyzed and proper proportioning of limestone and clay are making possible before the beginning of grinding. Generally, limestone is 80% and remaining 20% is the clay.
Cement Manufacturing Process Phase III:
Pre-heating Raw Material
After final grinding, the material is ready to face the pre-heating chamber. Pre-heater chamber consists of series of vertical cyclone from where the raw material passes before facing the kiln. Pre-heating chamber utilizes the emitting hot gases from kiln. Pre-heating of the material saves the energy and make plant environmental friendly.

19. Cement Manufacturing Process Phase III:
Preheating of raw material | Vertical cyclone

20. Cement Manufacturing Process Phase IV:
Kiln Phase
Kiln is a huge rotating furnace also called as the heart of cement making process. Here, raw material is heated up to 1450 ⁰C. This temperature begins a chemical reaction so called decarbonation. In this reaction material (like limestone) releases the carbon dioxide. High temperature of kiln makes slurry of the material.

21. Rotary kiln
The series of chemical reactions between calcium and silicon dioxide compounds form the primary constituents of cement i.e., calcium silicate. Kiln is heating up from the exit side by the use of natural gas and coal. When material reaches the lower part of the kiln, it forms the shape of clinker.

22. Cement Manufacturing Process Phase V: Cooling and Final Grinding
After passing out from the kiln, clinkers are cooled by mean of forced air. Clinker released the absorb heat and cool down to lower temperature. Released heat by clinker is reused by recirculating it back to the kiln. This too saves energy.
Final process of 5th phase is the final grinding. There is a horizontal filled with steel balls. Clinker reach in this rotating drum after cooling. Here, steel balls tumble and crush the clinker into a very fine powder. This fine powder is considered as cement. During grinding gypsum is also added to the mix in small percentage that controls the setting of cement.
Clinker cooling | Cement making process

23. DIFFERENT TYPES OF CEMENT
Rapid hardening cement
As the name indicate it develops the strength rapidly. This cement develops at the age of three days , the same strength as that expected of  Ordinary Portland cement at seven days. The rapid rate of development of the strength is due to the higher finess  and higher C3S and lower C2S. Used for the Road repair work, Early removal of the formwork, Cold weather concrete.
Quick setting cement
As the name indicates this type cement set quickly. This property is brought out by reducing the gypsum content at the time of the clinker grinding. This cement is required to mix, place and compacted very easly. Used for the underwater construction.

24. Sulphate resisting cement
Ordinary Portland cement is sucessible to the sulphate attack. Sulphate react with the free calcium hydroxide to form calcium sulphate and the hydrate of calcium aluminate to form calciumsulphoaluminates., the volume of which is approximately 227% of the volume of the original aluminates. Their expansion results in cracks. To remedy this the use of the cement with the low C3A is recommended. Such cement with the low C3A and content is known as the Sulphate resisting cement. Used for Marine condition, Foundation in soil infested with sulphates, Concrete used for the fabrication of pipes etc
Super sulphated cement
Super sulphated cement is manufactured by grinding together a mixture of 80 to 85 % of the granulated slag, 10 to 15 % of the hard burnt gypsum, and 5% Portland cement clinker. This cement is high sulphate resistant. Because of this property it is used for the Foundation where chemically aggressive condition exists.

25. Air entraining cement Portland Pozzolona cement
Portland Pozzolona cement is manufactured by intergrinding OPC clinker with 10 to 25% of the Pozzolona material. Portland Pozzolona cement produces low heat of hydration and offer greater resistance to the attack of the aggressive water than OPC. Used for the mass construction works, marine and hydraulic works.
 Air entraining cement
This cement is manufactured by mixing small amount of the air entraining agent with the OPC clinker at the time of grinding. At the time of mixing this cement will produce air bubbles in the body of the concrete which will modify the properties of the plastic concrete with respect to the workability, segregation and bleeding

26. Adulteration of cement

27. Cement adulteration is basically the addition of non-cement material to cement. Where cement is supposed to help in bonding to get strength needed for structures, this adulterated cement will refuse to bind when mixed during construction.
Cement texture Cement is supposed to be very fine, according to UNBS’ Richard Ebong (Head of Surveillance Division). If when it has lumps of any kind, you shouldn’t trust it. Stone dust is a common addition when cement is adulterated so lumps of any size are an indication of the otherwise fine cement.  Aside from the stone particles, many other items may give away, through texture, the additions that have been made.

28. Colour of the cement Whether dark or light, the cement in one bag should be of uniform color. It should not be white in places then dark gray in others. Usually, when it has been tampered with, a bag is opened and a little poured out then non-cement materials like crushed anthill soil, sand, ash and clay are added. The cement at the top of the bag may therefore have a different color from that at the bottom, or vice versa

29. The following are the field tests on cement:
The colour of the cement should be uniform. It should be grey colour with a light greenish shade.
(b) The cement should be free from any hard lumps. Such lumps are formed by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. Any bag of cement containing such lumps should be rejected.
(c) The cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between fingers. If it is felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.
(d) If hand is inserted in a bag of cement or heap of cement, it should feel cool and not warm.

30. (e) If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, the particles should float for some time before it sink.
(f) A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass plate and it is kept under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
(g) A block of cement 25 mm ×25 mm and 200 mm long is prepared and it is immersed for 7 days in water. It is then placed on supports 15cm apart and it is loaded with a weight of about 34 kg. The block should not show signs of failure.
(h) The briquettes of a lean mortar (1:6) are made. The size of briquette may be about 75 mm ×25 mm ×12 mm. They are immersed in water for a period of 3 days after drying. If cement is of sound quality such briquettes will not be broken easily.

31. NEW INNOVATIONS ON CEMENT
WHAT TYPE OF CEMENT USE TO BUILD AKASHI BRIDGE WHICH MAKE CONCRETE USING SEA (Hard) WATER ?
………………………………………………IT IS TOP SECRET !!!

32. SPECIAL TRETMENT ON CEMENT TO BUILD HOOVER DAM IN U.S.A.

33. The first concrete was poured into the dam on June 6, 1933, 18 months ahead of schedule.[59] Since concrete heats and contracts as it cures, the potential for uneven cooling and contraction of the concrete posed a serious problem. Bureau of Reclamation engineers calculated that if the dam was built in a single continuous pour, the concrete would take 125 years to cool and the resulting stresses would cause the dam to crack and crumble. Instead, the ground where the dam was to rise was marked with rectangles, and concrete blocks in columns were poured, some as large as 50 feet (15 m) square and 5 feet (1.5 m) high.[60] Each five-foot form contained a series of 1 inch (25 mm) steel pipes through which first cool river water, then ice-cold water from a refrigeration plant was run. Once an individual block had cured and had stopped contracting, the pipes were filled with grout. Grout was also used to fill the hairline spaces between columns, which were grooved to increase the strength of the joins.[61]

34. The concrete was delivered in huge steel buckets 7 feet (2
The concrete was delivered in huge steel buckets 7 feet (2.1 m) high and almost 7 feet (2.1 m) in diameter—Crowe was awarded two patents for their design. These buckets, which weighed 20 short tons (18 t) when full, were filled at two massive concrete plants on the Nevada side, and were delivered to the site in special railcars. The buckets were then suspended from aerial cableways, which were used to deliver the bucket to a specific column. As the required grade of aggregate in the concrete differed depending on placement in the dam (from pea-sized gravel to 9 inch (230 mm) stones), it was vital that the bucket be maneuvered to the proper column. Once the bottom of the bucket opened up, disgorging 8 cubic yards (6.1 m3) of concrete, a team of men worked it throughout the form. Although there are myths that men were caught in the pour and are entombed in the dam to this day, each bucket only deepened the concrete in a form by an inch, and Six Companies engineers would not have permitted a flaw caused by the presence of a human body.[62]

35. A total of 3,250,000 cubic yards (2,480,000 m3) of concrete was used in the dam before concrete pouring ceased on May 29, In addition, 1,110,000 cubic yards (850,000 m3) were used in the power plant and other works. More than 582 miles (937 km) of cooling pipes were placed within the concrete. Overall, there is enough concrete in the dam to pave a two-lane highway from San Francisco to New York.[47] Concrete cores were removed from the dam for testing in 1995; they showed that "Hoover Dam's concrete has continued to slowly gain strength" and the dam is composed of a "durable concrete having a compressive strength exceeding the range typically found in normal mass concrete".[63] Hoover Dam concrete is not subject to alkali–silica reaction (ASR) as the Hoover Dam builders happened to use nonreactive aggregate, unlike that at downstreamParker Dam, where ASR has caused measurable deterioration.[63

36. Ancient Chinese super-strong mortar

37. The delicious 'sticky' rice' that is a modern mainstay in Asian dishes was the secret behind an ancient Chinese super-strong mortar.
Researchers also concluded that the mortar - a paste used to bind and fill gaps between bricks, stone blocks and other construction materials - remains the best available material for restoring ancient buildings.
Doctor Bingjian Zhang and colleagues found that construction workers in ancient China developed sticky rice mortar about 1,500 years ago by mixing sticky rice soup with the standard mortar ingredient.

38. That ingredient is slaked lime, limestone that has been calcined, or heated to a high temperature, and then exposed to water.
Sticky rice mortar probably was the world's first composite mortar, made with both organic and inorganic materials. The mortar was stronger and more resistant to water than pure lime mortar, and what Dr Zhang termed one of the greatest technological innovations of the time
Builders used the material to construct important buildings like tombs, pagodas, and city walls, some of which still exist today. Some of the structures were even strong enough to shrug off the effects of modern bulldozers and powerful earthquakes

39. The inorganic component is calcium carbonate, and the organic component is amylopectin, which comes from the sticky rice soup added to the mortar. Moreover, we found that amylopectin in the mortar acted as an inhibitor: the growth of the calcium carbonate crystal was controlled, and a compact microstructure was produced, which should be the cause of the good performance of this kind of organic-organic mortar.'
To determine whether sticky rice can aid in building repair, the scientists prepared lime mortars with varying amounts of sticky rice and tested their performance compared to traditional lime mortar.

40. Dr Zhang said: 'The test results of the modelling mortars shows that sticky rice-lime mortar has more stable physical properties, has greater mechanical strength, and is more compatible, which make it a suitable restoration mortar for ancient masonry.'
The research was published in the journal of the American Chemical Society.

42. ANCIENT INDIAN CEMENT TECHNOLOGY

43. Building Materials Used for the Construction of Taj Mahal

44. Taj Mahal included different kind of bricks, Gaj-i-Shirin (sweet limestone), Khaprel or tiles, Qulba or Spouts to lead off water, San, Gum, Sirish-i-Kahli or reed glue, Gul-i-Surkh or red clay, Simgil (silver clay) and glass. The center and skeleton of the main building is made up of extra strong brick masonary in which massive white marble slabs, have been used on the headers and stretchers system to give it a white marble outlook. Cement use such as molasses; batashe (sugar-bubbles), belgiri-water, urd-pulse, curd, jute and Kankar (pieces of fossilized soil) were mixed with lime mortar to make it an ideal cementing material. 

46. THANK YOU !