1. Cells, Tissues, Organs and Organ Systems by Sajid Khan

2. What is a Cell? Organism BacteriaInsectSmall mammalHuman Diagram Notes Bacteria are tiny organisms whose single cells have neither a membrane-bounded nucleus nor other membrane-bounded organelles. These organisms are very successful. Did you know all bacteria found on the surface of our planet weigh more than any other species? That's amazing. An insect can have millions of cells. Insects have basic organ systems that help all insects live and reproduce. An organ system is a group of organs that work together to complete a specific task. A small mammal can contain millions of cells. Don’t let size fool you. Cells are microscopic so they can fit in almost any small space! Small mammals also contain a specific array of organ systems including respiratory, circulatory, ect. Which also included in human organ systems as well. There are eleven major organ systems in the human body. Humans contain a skeletal organ system, reproductive, and an excretory organ system. Humans can produce billions of new cells each hour! We put our organ systems to work. Cells are the smallest unit of living matter. All living things are made up of cells including bacteria, insects, small mammal’s and humans. There are a lot of different cells. Cells contain atoms which is matter, the basic building blocks of objects. (1, 3)

3. How Cells, Tissues, and Organ Systems Work. PartCellsTissuesOrgansOrgan Systems such as Circulatory Diagram Notes Cells are all different. Each cell has a job. For example a red blood cells job is to carry oxygen to the rest of the body. Tissues like blood and skin are collections of cells working together to keep life in motion. Organs like the heart, brain, liver, and skin are all collections of tissues. The tissue contains many functions to keep the organs alive. The organs all work together to sustain life and create and organ system. This group of organs transport blood and the nutrients in blood through out the body. This group of organs work together and become an organ system. Certain cells perform certain functions. When two cells perform similar functions they are both organized into tissues. For example: A tissue like a skin tissue contain a collection of cells that are highly specialized and are designed to do their job by creating new cells and absorbing the nutrients to keep the skin healthy. If the cells in our skin didn’t fight off infection we would die due to the infection passing through our skin into our body. (1, 3, 5)

4. How do cells and organ systems work together to create an organism? An organism is a living thing that can react to certain things like light, glucose, carbon dioxide, etc. reproduce, grow, and maintain homeostasis. An organism can be a bacteria, protist, fungi, virus, animal, or plant. An organ system is a group of organs that work together and complete a particular task such as the respiratory systems job is to carry oxygen to your lungs and other parts of your body then dispose of carbon dioxide. An organ system is a group of organs that work together and complete a particular task such as the respiratory systems job is to carry oxygen to your lungs and other parts of your body then dispose of carbon dioxide. A cell is the structural, functional, and biological unit of organisms. A cell is the structural, functional, and biological unit of organisms. (1, 5, 6. 7, 8) “When two or more similar cells join together we get a tissue. Two or more similar tissue fuse to form a organ. Different organs function together to make a organ system.“ (8)

5. This is a tree map explaining the flow of how cells and organ systems contribute to making an organism.

6. Cell part Function NucleusFound in both cells, A nucleus controls activity and contains cell genes. MitochondriaBreaths glucose and oxygen within the cell. Only found in animal cells. Cell membrane The outer part of the cell which gives the cell shape and controls the cells molecules as there passed in and out of the cell. Found both in animal and plant cells. CytoplasmChemical reactions that are very essential in the certain area. Found in both plant and animal cells. Cell wallStrengthens the cell in the plant. Is made from cellulose. Found in Plant cells. VacuoleContains a liquid that is sugary called cell sap. Found in plant cells. ChloroplastCarries out photosynthesis, turning light into energy. Only found in plant cells. Plant and animal cells Cell AnimalPlant Diagram Plant and animal cells both have some things in common such as a nucleus. Plant cells contain unique organelles that use light and turn it into energy. This is called photosynthesis. Each tiny cell organelle has a special job to do within the cell. (1, 4)

7. Essential cell organelles Cell organelles in plants and animals: Organelle MitochondriaChloroplastNucleusCell membrane Diagram Function Found in both plant and animal cells, Mitochondria breaths glucose and oxygen to release energy along with Co2 and water. Chloroplast is only found in plant cells. They are able to combine carbon dioxide and water by using the energy from light. By doing this they release oxygen and glucose. A cell’s nucleus contains necessary information or genes so it’s able to produce new cells, new enzymes and new proteins. Humans have over 30,000 genes. Controls passage of substances in and out of a cell. Movement of the molecules happen by active uptake, which is high activity in taking up molecules. Cell organelles carry out important functions in plants and animal cells. The nucleus builds new proteins including enzymes and also controls activity in the cell so nothing goes hay wire. The nucleus also contains DNA, the material of inheritance and is able to produce new daughter cells during cell division aka mitosis. Mitochondria breathes glucose and oxygen releasing energy. (1, 5)

8. Specific cells in Humans and Animals Specific cells in animals: CellRed blood cellNerve cellSperm cellMuscle cells Diagram Notes Red blood cells contain no nucleus and have a larger surface area. This allows than to carry more oxygen to larger areas of the body. These cells carry connections through out our body to different nerve cells. The can send out impulses to other nerve cells to send our body different messages in a short amount of time. Sperm cells can swim to their destination, being the female egg, using the tails and streamlined head to reach the female egg and deliver fertilization. Muscle cells are rich in mitochondria allowing them to produce massive amounts of energy by taking in glucose and oxygen and turning it into energy. They contract to make our bodies move. Cells are designed for specific functions in the human body and an animal body, which are very much alike. Billions and billions of cells work together in our body to support their assigned life. A red blood cell for example does not contain a nucleus so there is more room to transport more oxygen to the rest of the body. A muscle cell may contain more mitochondria than normal cells because it must produce more energy. (1, 2, 4)

9. Specific cells in Plants. CellRoot hair cellXylem cellsPollen cellStomata cell Diagram Notes Root hair cells contain a large surface area, just like red blood cells. They have this large surface area to take in more minerals and water to create photosynthesis for a healthy plant. Water is carried up and down the plants stem and through the Xylem vessels. These are long tubes that reach from the roots to the leaf. Water moves in xylem cells. Pollen cells are like the male gametes and are transferred to the female carpel by insects such as bees. Each pollen cell contains genetic information to create a new specific plant. These cells are located on the underside of leaves to exchange water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen when photosynthesis is occurring in the plant. Like in animal cells, plant cells are also specifically designed to function along with their rolls and produce life. Millions of cells work together to produce food for these green plants by taking light and turning it into energy. A pollen cell, for example is like a male sperm cell compared to an animal sperm cell. The pollen cell is transferred to the female carpel by insects therefore creating new genetic information to create a new plant. (1, 8, 10)

10. The size of cells in plants and animals CellTypical animal cellsTypical plant cellsCell division in plants and animals Diagram NotesAnimal cells range much larger than plant cells. They can stretch to 10 to 100 meters. Plant cells are much smaller than animal cells. Plant cells stretch from 10 to 30 micrometers. When cell volume increases, the ratio decreases between surface area and volume decreasing. This reduces the cells ability to absorb nutrients and oxygen in the cell membrane. Over a million cells split in our bodies every day doubling our cells. Mitosis Parent cell 2 Daughter cells DNA replicates Chromosomes separate Stage one Stage four Stage two Stage three 2n 4n 2n Cells in plants and animals come in all different sizes. We need a microscope to exam the size of cells. Plant cells are much smaller than animal cells. Both plant and animal cells split or divide before becoming to large. If cells didn’t split the surface area would become too large and release oxygen and nutrients that could have been absorbed. (1, 10,11)

11. System The Code For Life and Bio Information Organism Organ Tissues Cell. Nucleus

12. The Code For Life Chromosome Genes Brown eyes Straight hair Big nose

13.  A cell is an organization of millions of molecules  Proper communication between these molecules is essential to the normal functioning of the cell  To understand communication between molecules:  To understand communication between molecules: *determine the arrangement of the atoms* Organ  Tissue  Cell  Molecule  Atoms Structural Biology Medicine and Biology at the Atomic Scale

14. Advanced Cell & Developmental Biology

15. Gene, Recombinant DNA & Cloning Analysis

16. Restriction Enzymes Restriction enzymes are DNases (nucleases) found in bacteria that recognize specific DNA sequences as 4mers,6mers or 8mers and make double stranded breaks in DNA. This enables cutting of genome in specific ways to generate restriction site maps and the development of approaches for pasting pieces of DNA together in specific ways. A B C D,E F Separation of EcoR1 segments on an agarose gel

17. DNA Hybridization DNA hybridization is the process whereby complementary strand of DNA anneals (to form a double helix) with the single stranded DNA Hybridization can be measured by labeling the “complementary strand” either with 32 P nucleotides or fluorescent probes. There is also DNA-RNA hybridization

18. Southern Blotting Southern Blotting enables identification of specific DNA sequences (gene fragments) from among the total sequence of DNA Cut DNA with restriction enzymes Separate fragments on agarose or acrylamide gels Transfer the separated DNA from gel on to nitrocellulose paper Hybridize with a labeled DNA or RNA of interest ( e.g., 32 P labeled DNA) followed by autoradiography or phosphoimaging for detection

19. Northern Blotting Northern Blotting is where RNA is blotted and then probed labeled DNA (cDNA) synthesized from the mRNA isolated from the cell Enables identification and quantification of specific mRNAs from among the vast population of RNAs in the cell

20. DNA cloning DNA cloning enables specific pieces of genome to be inserted into bacteria as plasmid or phage lambda vectors and grown in large quantity. The first step is to generate a library of bacteria with inserted DNA fragments. This could either be a genomic(DNA)or a cDNA (mRNA) library

21. Replica plating and in situ hybridization Techniques used to identify a bacterial colony that contains the gene (DNA sequence) of interest. The isolated colony can be grown up in large quantities. Replica plating and in situ hybridization CsCl centrifugation for separation of plamid DNA from chromosomal DNA

22. cDNA libraries They are generated to isolate particular genes of interest or to identify a gene based on the protein expression of that gene cloned in the bacterial cell The latter procedure is called “reverse genetics” whereby the protein product is used to identify the gene followed by DNA sequencing

23. DNA sequencing Sanger’s dideoxy method DNA to be sequenced is mixed with each of 4 ddNTPS (chain terminators) in separate reactions for DNA synthesis and later separation of the products by electrophoresis Can now be done automatically via sequencing machines that work with different flurochromes attached to each of dideoxy nucleotides To determine the sequence of a gene of many kilobases overlapping DNA fragments of 400- 800 bp must be sequenced

24. Protein expression vectors These are specially designed plasmid vectors for fusion protein expression to isolate large quantities of protein of interest for antibody production or other studies of purified protein. The proteins are produced as fusion proteins of the cDNA gene coding sequence ligated to a protein expression marker or reporter protein e.g. beta-galactosidase They can also be used as a major tool in cell biology to study the expression of proteins in cells following DNA transfection

25. DNA transfection and Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) DNA transfection is used to track the properties of individual proteins in a cell Construct a plasmid expression system that contains the protein of interest fused with a reporter gene such as a beta- galactosidase or a short peptide sequence such as HA 9 mer peptide or FLAG epitope for antibody localization with anti HA or anti FLAG or fluorescent localization in living cells with GFP- constructs (GFP-actin) Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) Is used as an alternative to cloning for purifying a particular DNA (gene sequence It enables the production of microgram quantities of the DNA sequence of interest in the test tube Provides an alternative for preparing DNA probes to screen genomic or cDNA library for clones encoding a protein of interest

26. DNA Microarrays and chips Enable via fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to measure expression of 1000’s of genes on each array/ chip. Yeast genome microarray: The array is hybridized to cDNA labeled with a green fluorescent dye prepared from cells grown in glucose and with red labeled cDNA from cells grown in ethanol. Spots were detected with a scanning confocal microscope Actual chip size

27. Antibody production Polyclonal antibodies are generated by injecting antigen into an animal and purifying the antibody titer from blood Monoclonal antibody technique enables to obtain a single clone of cells that recognizes one epitope ( usually ~ 9 a.a.) of the total protein Monoclonal antibody production

28. Genetic Engineering Introduction of exogenous genes ( mutant or normal) in to normal cells or organisms to study gene expression Used to study the role of the protein coded by the gene in the cell/organism function or for engineering gene expression for improving food production or reducing the destrcutive damage of human diseases

29. Site Directed Mutagenesis Alterations in nucleotides (substitutions or deletions) in vitro at known (directed) sites to create “mutant genes” These mutant genes can be transfected into cells as previously discussed and enables study of gene function at the individual cell level. The transfected genes are also called “transgenes”

30. Production of transgenic mouse Inject mutant gene in to one of the pronuclei of the fertilized mouse oocyte Transfer oocyte to surrogate mother. 10- 30% of offspring contain the transgene in equal amounts in all tissues

31. Gene Knockout or “replacement” Form of trangenics Occurs following homologous recombination of the transgene at the site of the endogenous gene Occurs readily in yeast cells but in mammalian cells the rate of recombination is very slow and hence a double selection marker approach is adopted where the first marker e.g. neomycin resistance selects for all cells with homologous recombination while the second marker allows growth of only those cells that carried out homologous recombination

32. Knockout protocol ES cells are isolated from the inner blastocyst and culture ES cells are tranfected with the gene of interest ES cells successfully transfected via homologous recombination are selected and grown in culture and injected into a host blastocyst. Chimeras develop which contain ES cells from both the transfected and the host cells. Enables direct study of gene function in an intact organism

33. Gene Replacement/therapy Replace an abnormal gene with a normal one at a very early stage of development It has the potential for curing or alleviating the symptoms of a wide variety of human diseases, e.g.,Parkinson’s disease Procedure for gene replacement

34. How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 1 Making Quiescent Cells Finn Dorset ewe 3.5 months pregnant Mammary gland cells Culture mammary cells Harvest quiescent cells Starve cells

35. Suction Suction Pipette Glass pipette How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 2 Collecting The Donor Nucleus

36. Suction Suction Pipette Glass pipette How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 2 Collecting The Donor Nucleus

37. How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 3 Egg Preparation Scottish Blackfaced ewe egg donor An egg is collected then placed into a dish where it can be manipulated Egg

38. Suction Suction Pipette Glass pipette Egg Chromosomes How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 3 Egg Preparation

39. Egg Suction Suction Pipette Glass pipette Chromosomes How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 3 Egg Preparation

40. Suction Suction Pipette Glass pipette How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 4 Inserting The Donor Nucleus

41. Suction Suction Pipette Glass pipette How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 4 Inserting The Donor Nucleus

42. Suction Suction Pipette How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 4 Inserting The Donor Nucleus

43. How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 5 Initiating Development

44. Zygote How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 5 Initiating Development

45. Cleavage How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 5 Initiating Development

46. Cleavage How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 5 Initiating Development

47. Cleavage How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 5 Initiating Development

48. Cleavage How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 5 Initiating Development

49. Morula How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 5 Initiating Development

50. Scottish Blackfaced ewe surrogate mother How Ian Wilmut Made Dolly 6 Development Morula Finn Dorset lamb Dolly

51. References 1. Unit 38 Cells, Tissues, and Organ Systems http://www.slideshare.net/scienceinteractive/unit-38-cells-tissues-organs-and-organ- systems 2. Medicene.Net http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=5260 3. Biology.about.com http://biology.about.com/od/organsystems/a/aa031706a.htm 4. Cells Alive! http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/3dcell.htm 5. Cells and Organelles http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/cells.htm 6. Answers.com http://www.answers.com/topic/organism 7. Biology-online.org http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Cell 8. Biology-online.org http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Cell 9. Wiki.answers.com http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Relate_cells_to_tissues_to_organs_to_organ_systems_how_ do_they_work_together

52. References 10. Microscopy.fsu.edu http://www.microscopy.fsu.edu/cells/plantcell.html 11. Wikipedia.org http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29