1. Sense relation: Paradigmatic relation Prepared by: Narmin Abdullrahman 11-11-2011

2. Varieties of sense relation three axes of sense relations: paradigmatic, syntagmatic, and derivational. 4 Paradigm: A sign that forms a member of the same category  patterns, motifs. 5

3. The term 'paradigmatic relation' was introduced by Louis Hjelmslev. Ferdinand de Saussure, who established the opposition between the two types of relations in structuralist linguistics, used the term associative relation for what Hjelmslev called 'paradigmatic relation. 6associative relation

4. Paradigmatic A dissimilar thing that can be exchanged for the thing of which the value is to be determined. 7 Example: Alice’s hat is green. My coat isn’t yellow. A cat sat on the mat. A dog fell in this chair.

5. characteristics of Paradigmatic relations  1- reflect the semantic choices available at a particular structure point in a sentence  2- hold in principle between members of the same major syntactic categories 3- Paradigmatic relationships are typically associative, that both items are in a single membership set. 8

6. Synonymy Synonyms are different phonological words which Have the same or very similar meanings. Examples like: Couch / sofa boy/lad large/ big ( Saeed.2009,p.65) Synonymy Two lexemes are synonymous if they have the same meaning. ( Lo ِ bner,2002 p.46)

7. The word comes from Ancient Greek syn (σύν) ("with") and onoma ( ὄ νομα) ("name").Ancient Greekσύν ὄ νομα The words car and automobile are synonyms. 9

8. . Synonyms are traditionally defined as words having different form but identical or similar meaning.10 Synonymy

9. Problems with the definition It is possible that a polysemous word just shares one meaning with another word. Are the two words synonyms? There are no such thing as true synonymy. freedom of choice a person a person who leads a headmaster head: the upper part of the body 1) chief 2) boss 3) leader mental ability the top of something

10. some meanings Part of speech A Likeness in Some points about synonyms:

11. baby and infant (noun) buy and purchase (verb) sick and ill (adjective) quickly and speedily (adverb) on and upon (preposition) freedom and liberty (noun) student and pupil (noun) pretty and attractive (adjective) Likeness in Part of speech

12. pupil “ A child in school ” (synonyms) student “ Aperture in the iris of the eye ” a likeness in some meanings

13. 1- What is the relation between ‘school’ and ‘schoolhouse’? 2- What is the relation between ‘school’, and ‘place for teaching’? Questions: ?

14. Degrees of synonymy:  Strict (absolute) synonymy  loose’ or ‘relative’ synonymy

15. Strict (absolute) synonymy Also known as complete synonyms, are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning including conceptual and associative meanings. They are interchangeable in all contexts. E.g. word-building --- word-formation scarlet --- scarlatina.

16. Distinction made between absolute and complete synonyms by Absolute synonyms: the words have the same distribution and are completely synonymous in all their meanings and in all their contexts of occurrence. complete synonyms: they are the words that have the same descriptive, expressive and social meaning. John Lyons

17. loose’ or ‘relative’ synonymy. Also called by some people near-synonyms, are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. E.g. change- alter- vary reject --- decline kill-----murder He was killed, but I can assure you he was NOT murdered.

18. Differences between loose synonyms We often take the following things into consideration when we try to find the differences between synonyms. Different English dialects Different stylistic meanings Different connotative meanings

19. Synonyms from different dialects Some synonym pairs differ in that they belong to different dialects of English. Here are some examples of synonyms from British and American English: BrEAmEBrEAmE liftelevatorfarmranch lawyerattorneybiscuitcookie rubbishgarbagepavementsidewalk

20. Synonyms with different stylistic meanings One of a pair of synonyms may be used in a more formal context than the other. Here are some examples of synonym pairs. InformalFormalInformalFormal diedeceasedaddyfather blamechideguyman westoccidentalpraiseeulogy

21. Synonyms with different connotative meanings Synonyms may have different emotive associations (connotative meanings). famousnotorious (disreputably) misuseabuse (of privilege or power) ambiguousequivocal (deliberately) newnovel (strikingly) hateloathe (with disgust) obtainprocure (with effort)

22. Source of synonyms Why are there so many synonyms in English? The primary reason for this has to do with the heavy borrowing from other languages, especially from French and Latin. EnglishFrenchLatin askquestioninterrogate timeageepoch begincommence buypurchase

23. Inclusion: class B is wholly included in class A (Cruse, 1986, p:87) The more general term is called super ordinate Or hyponym Hyponymy: is a relation of inclusion. A hyponym includes the meaning of a more general word. e.g. Dog and cat are hyponyms of animal (Saeed, 2009, p:69) A B

24. Inclusion is that some words have a more general meaning, while others have a more specific meaning, while referring to the same entity. FOOD MEAT We are not going to have any food today. We are not going to have any vegetables today. VEGETABLE

25. MEATVEGETABLE FRUIT BEEFPORKMUTTON CABBAGECELERYSPINACH APPLEPEACHORANGE superordinate They are subordinate terms. They are hyponyms of the superordinate term FOOD. FOOD Reading from the bottom of the hierarchy, ORANGE is a ‘kind of’ fruit, which is a kind of food. They are subordinate terms. They are hyponyms of the superordinate term MEAT.

26. Thanks….

27. Sources: 1- Saeed, J.(2009), Semantics,3rd edition, Wiley-Blackwell 2- Lobner, S.(2002) Understanding Semantics,Oxford university Press 3- Cruse,A.(1986) Lexical Semantics, Cambridge university Press 4-http://www.f.waseda.jp/yueno/cruse_ch8.htmhttp://www.f.waseda.jp/yueno/cruse_ch8.htm 5 6-http://www.glottopedia.de/index.php/Paradigmatic_relation 7- http://www.google.iq/paradigmatic+relations 8- http://changingminds.org/explanations/critical_theory 9- Bussmann,H.(1996 ), Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, 2 nd ed, London. 10- www.hznu.cn/jpkc/yychx/opensource/kcjs www.akira.ruc.dk/~camelia/Teaching/TextAndSign/text-and-sign1