1. Communication in the Workplace
Chapter 2
Communication
in the Workplace
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

2. Organizational Communication in the Workplace
Challenges in an organization not only affect the organization but also impact employees, their families, investors and customers, entire communities, even the nation
Most people will go through many changes in their lives and will work for many different companies
To make effective choices one must understand
Types of internal communication found in workplace
Methods used to coordinate people and groups
Major models used in the workplace today
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

3. Communicating for Results, 10th edition
Formal Communication
Flows along official paths prescribed by organization’s chain of command and shown by organizational chart
Formal messages flow
Downward
Upward
Horizontally
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

4. Downward Communication
Formal messages that flow from managers and supervisors down to subordinates
Downward communication adds to employee satisfaction
Can lead to information overload
Employees with information overload not necessarily dissatisfied with their jobs
All employees who experienced information underload were dissatisfied
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

5. Downward Communication
A problem with downward communication is that it is often in written form
There are several problems with written messages:
They are usually brief and may omit needed details
Because of need for brevity, memos normally do not include the job rationale
Frame of reference differences make interpretation of messages difficult
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

6. Downward Communication
If memos and s are accompanied by face-to-face communication, message interpretation is improved
Employees at all levels prefer oral communication
Managers prefer to hear it from people they know and like, even if they are less knowledgeable
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

7. Communicating for Results, 10th edition
Upward Communication
Formal messages that flow upward from subordinates to supervisors and managers
The following types of messages are valuable when upwardly communicated:
Reports of employee work, achievements, progress
Outlines of work problems that need to be solved
Suggestions for improvements within department or company
How employees think and feel about their jobs, associates, company
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

8. Communicating for Results, 10th edition
Upward Communication
Effective decision making depends on timely, accurate, and sufficient information traveling upward
If all information reached the top, information overload would hamper management decisions
Some messages need to be screened out or shortened
The problem is how to get the information needed without information overload
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

9. Communicating for Results, 10th edition
Upward Communication
For upward communication to be effective, it must be accurate
Desire to conceal bad news is “MUM effect”
Upward messages more likely to be distorted or withheld when subordinates don’t trust superiors or when subordinates desire upward mobility or recognition
In a high-tech environment, upward feedback must not only be accurate, but must be fast
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

10. Horizontal Communication
Messages that flow laterally between people of same rank
Important for coordinating tasks, solving problems, sharing information, resolving conflicts
Especially valuable for difficult or complex problems
Empowered teams
Teams with power to make decisions
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

11. Informal Communication
Messages that flow along informal network
Grapevine
Exists because of limited formal networks
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

12. Informal Communication
Many view grapevine as unimportant, but research indicates the opposite
Type of information grapevine carries indicates health of organization
Information carried by grapevine is 75-95% accurate
Information carried by grapevine travels fast
People who regularly use grapevine are more satisfied with their jobs and more committed to organization
Effective managers use grapevine
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13. Informal Communication
Two advantages to using informal communication networks
Can get advice and information without formally having to admit we need it
We can “think out loud” about problems, increasing self-confidence and problem-solving ability
Stimulates innovative thinking
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

14. Coordination of People and Groups
Organizations must successfully coordinate people and groups to achieve maximum productivity
Organizations use three basic types of coordination
Mutual adjustment
Direct supervision
Standardization
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

15. Coordination of People and Groups
Mutual adjustment
Horizontal communication between peers to make work-related decisions
Method is flexible and implemented only when needed
When organization exceeds around 12 members, “process loss” occurs
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

16. Coordination of People and Groups
Direct supervision
Supervisor has authority to organized and direct members’ work
Mutual adjustment still used as secondary means of coordinating
More effective way to funnel information and coordinate activities of midsize organizations
Supervisors with more than 50 employees likely to experience information overload trying to keep up with employee needs
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

17. Coordination of People and Groups
Standardization
For organizations with over 50 employees, more effective means of coordinating
Initially costly to set up
Once running need for coordination is reduced and system basically runs itself
Direct supervision and mutual adjustment used as secondary coordination when necessary
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

18. Coordination of People and Groups
Standardization
Organizations that emphasize standardization are more bureaucratic in nature
In rapidly changing industries, standardization fails to work effectively and usually replaced with more expensive mutual adjustment method
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

19. Organizational Models
Different kinds of communication encouraged in five organizational models
Each model has its best way to do things
Each model has its strengths and weaknesses
Although each model currently in use, not all fare equally well in today’s diverse global market
Organizations that succeed in today’s changing marketplace may be those that capitalize on diversity; are flexible; are fast at problem-solving and operation start-up; encourage and reward innovation; and make use of new technology
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

20. The Traditional (or Classical) Model
Early in 20th century, large organizations were a new phenomenon with no role models except military
Companies managed by hunch or intuition
Attempts to motivate and control employees were inefficient and often inhumane
Two types of organization theorists emerged
Scientific managers who wanted to improve organizations
Bureaucratic managers who felt improvements would occur fastest by dealing first with management problems
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

21. Traditional Model and Scientific Managers
Frederick Taylor, U.S. theorist, responsible for popularity of scientific management approach
Taylor observed many of the organizational problems of the day
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

22. Traditional Model and Scientific Managers
Taylor’s best way was to apply four scientific principles to problems of production and management
Scientific design of each task
Scientific selection of workers
Adequate training and rewards for productivity
Division of both labor and responsibilities
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23. Traditional Model and Bureaucratic Theorists
Henri Fayol, French mining expert, and Max Weber, German sociologist, were Taylor’s contemporaries
Interested in improving direct supervision through structure and control
Foundation of bureaucratic theory was organizational structure
Organizations must have a clear division of labor
Chain of command is communication structure of organization
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

24. Traditional Model and Bureaucratic Theorists
Although theorists favored formal, downward communication, aware of limitations of pyramidal structure
Fayol’s best way was suggestion that direct, horizontal communication be allowed, but only in legitimate crises
This method of bypassing chain of command became known as Fayol’s bridge
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

25. Fayol’s Bridge A D C B G F E Normal lines of communication
Bypasses chain
Of command X X X X X X X X X X X
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26. Traditional Model and Bureaucratic Theorists
Despite recommendation of bureaucratic theorists, flat organization has several advantages over tall organization
Complex problems are handled more efficiently
Problems are handled faster
Communication less distorted
Employee morale and satisfaction fairly high
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

27. Traditional Model and Bureaucratic Theorists
Tall organizations (Theory X) have following advantage and disadvantages
Uncomplicated tasks handled with more efficiency
Communication less efficient and problems generally take longer to handle
Employee morale and satisfaction fairly low
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

28. Traditional Model and Bureaucratic Theorists
Weber’s best way was to formalize the bureaucracy
His most enduring ideas:
Policies and rules of organization should be specified in writing
All decisions and actions should be put in writing
Managers should keep all relationships with employees detached and impersonal
Because authority is limited, formal written rules should be legal basis of authority and control over employees
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29. The Human Relations Model
In addition to worker and labor union rejection of the traditional organization, by the time of the Great Depression many organizations had their own reasons to welcome human relations movement
Engineering and business schools turning out large numbers of educated, white-collar workers
One of the key ideas of scientific management disproved
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

30. Human Relations and Elton Mayo
Hawthorne studies
Conducted by Elton Mayo and Harvard University colleagues between 1927 and 1932
Substantiated previous findings at Hawthorne plant that changes in task conditions not responsible for increase in productivity
Hawthorne studies reached two conclusions:
Worker attitude affects productivity more than working conditions
Personal relationships also affect productivity
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31. Human Relations and Chester Barnard
Chester Barnard, contemporary of Mayo, former president of New Jersy Bell Telephone Company
Barnard’s best way emphasized importance of communication to organizational success
Acknowledged importance of informal communication
Informal groups within organization establish norms and codes of conduct and provide cohesion, communication, and satisfaction to workers
Recognized economic motives were not the only employee motivators
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

32. Human Relations and Chester Barnard
Despite Barnard’s opinion of importance of communication, still viewed it much as scientific managers did
One-way tool to be used by managers for command functions
He urged clearly established, formal communication channels and recommended that bypassing them not be allowed
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

33. The Human Relations Model in Today’s World
An open, trusting climate may be easier to implement in small, family-run organizations
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

34. The Human Resources Model
Grew out of criticisms and problems of human relations school, and by late 1960s became model in its own right
No clear-cut line between human relations and human resources models – only gradual shift
Douglas McGregor and Rensis Likert started transition by comparing traditional management with human relations model and combining the best of both
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

35. The Human Resources Model
Advocates of human resources model liked it because it focused on both increased employee satisfaction and improved organizational decision making
Human resources model emphasized both relational communication and command communication
Raymond Miles may have been first to use term human resources
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

36. Human Resources and McGregor’s Theory Y
McGregor critical of businesses following traditional model
Felt traditional model significantly decreased employee performance
When managers believe in traditional model (Theory X), following communication behaviors occur:
Most messages flow downward from managers to subordinates
Upward communication extremely limited
Subordinates fear and distrust management
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

37. Comparison of Human Relations and Human Resources Models
McGregor based his theories on Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Theory X deals only with the physiological and safety needs of hierarchy
Theory Y covers all five levels of needs
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

38. McGregor’s Theory Y McGregor’s Theory X Messages travel downward
Upward messages limited
Fear & distrust of management
Decisions made by top management
Messages travel up and down in the organization
Decisions shared & based on input from all levels
Feedback is encouraged in an upward direction
Copyright Cengage © 2011

39. The Human Resources Model in Today’s World
Current application of human resources model has variety of names such as quality control circles or quality circles, cross-functional teams, TQM, employee participation groups, high-performance teams, self-directed teams, or simply teams
Although quality circles and employee teams have been successful in some companies other companies have experienced high failure rate
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

40. The Human Resources Model in Today’s World
The following characteristics considered necessary for team success:
Regular training in problem solving and team work
Horizontal communication among departments and flexibility with departments
Employees willing to work
Managers willing to listen to employees
Organizations open to change
Rapid management response to suggestions
Cooperation between management and unions
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41. The Systems/Contingency Model
Contend that there is no one best way
Joan Woodward found no relationship between any type of management principle and organizational effectiveness
Upon reexamination, she found the effectiveness of certain management principles depended on the type of industry
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

42. Communicating for Results, 10th edition
Systems Theory
Strengths of systems theory:
Recognizes interdependence of all parts of an organization
Acknowledges both formal and informal communication as central to an organization’s success
Integrates biases of traditional and human relations models and gives them equal weight
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

43. Communicating for Results, 10th edition
Systems Theory
Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn referred to organizations as open systems
Open system has flexible boundaries that allow communication to flow easily in and out of organization
People who link organization with outsiders are boundary spanners
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

44. Communicating for Results, 10th edition
Contingency Theory
Evolved from general systems theory
Still being developed
Several versions, but all have same basic belief:
“No one type of organizational structure or leadership style is most appropriate for all situations”
Adaptability is required
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

45. Communicating for Results, 10th edition
Contingency Theory
Fred Fiedler’s contingency theory
Came to conclusion that “which management style will be most effective depends on degree to which group situation enables manager to exert influence”
Fiedler analyzes variables such as leader-follower relations, position power, and task structure
Research by Fiedler shows that managers can be trained to identify and modify various situations to better fit their own communication and leadership styles
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

46. Communicating for Results, 10th edition
Contingency Theory
Robert House’s path-goal theory
Employees’ overall job satisfaction and performance levels contingent on:
Employee satisfaction with job
Uncertainty and difficulty of job
Communication style of supervisor
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

47. Communicating for Results, 10th edition
Contingency Theory
Instead of employees adapting to fit management style, House suggests managers adapt to fit given situation
Neither director nor supportive leadership will be effective unless employees perceive leader as helping them achieve desired goals
Successful leaders make path to goals clear and attainable
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

48. The Contingency Model in Today’s World
Theory Z, developed by William Ouchi, as an alternative to Theories X and Y
Application of contingency theory
Successful organizations are those whose corporate culture reflects values of their employees
Theory Z company adapts management style to existing employee culture
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49. The Contingency Model in Today’s World
Organization’s culture gives members sense of identity
Makes them feel part of the whole and more committed
Reinforces expected behaviors
Culture is transmitted in part by stories, symbols and slogans, jargon, ceremonies, and principle statements
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

50. The Transformational Model
Newest organizational models are the transformational models
Result of problems that traditional models have experienced trying to survive in today’s business environment
Communicating for Results, 10th edition

51. The Transformational Model
They have transformed models from the past into the new multiunit and virtual structures
Post bureaucratic
Must have more flexibility
Technological (or networks)
Made up of autonomous teams
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52. The Multiunit Organization
Made up of separate, autonomous businesses under same holding company
Decentralized structure allows large parent company to operate with flexibility of small businesses
Often created when large bureaucracies downsize and restructure
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53. The Virtual Organization/Virtual Teams
Temporary venture among several companies, each with special expertise or process specialty
Use mutual adjustment as primary means of coordination
Do not promise long-term employment
Conditional employment/employability
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54. The Transformational Model in Today’s World
May be moving toward blend of all models
All of the following are important to organization and team success:
Structure
Trust
Strong relationships
Team skills
Flexibility
Cultural values
Environmental awareness
Global awareness
Participative management
Communicating for Results, 10th edition