1. CS6045: Advanced Algorithms Data Structures

2. Dynamic Sets Next few lectures will focus on data structures rather than straight algorithms In particular, structures for dynamic sets –Elements have a key and satellite data –Dynamic sets support queries such as: Search(S, k), Minimum(S), Maximum(S), Successor(S, x), Predecessor(S, x) –They may also support modifying operations like: Insert(S, x), Delete(S, x)

3. Stacks Stack (has top), LIFO (last-in first-out) policy –insert = push ( top(S) = top(S)+1); S[top(S)] = x ) O(1) –delete = pop O(1) 15629 1234567 top = 4 1562917 1234567 top = 5

4. Stacks More operations –Empty stack: contain no elements –Stack underflow: pop an empty stack –Stack overflow: S.top >= n Operations running time?

5. Queues Queue (has head and tail), FIFO (first-in first-out) policy –insert = enqueue (add element to the tail) O(1) –delete = dequeue (remove element from the head) O(1) 15629 1234567 tail = 6head = 2 156298 1234567 tail = 6head = 2

6. Circular Queue

7. Linked List Linked List (objects are arranged in a linear order) –The order is determined by a pointer in each object –Array: the order determined by array indices Doubly Linked List (has head) –Key, prev, and next attributes x

8. Linked List Operations: –Search –Insert to the head –Delete x

9. Linked List Running time of linked list operations: –Search –Insert –Delete

10. Binary Tree Binary Tree has root –Each node has parent, left, and right attributes

11. Binary Search Trees Binary Search Trees (BSTs) are an important data structure for dynamic sets Elements have: –key: an identifying field inducing a total ordering –left: pointer to a left child (may be NULL) –right: pointer to a right child (may be NULL) –p: pointer to a parent node (NULL for root)

12. Binary Search Trees BST property: –all keys in the left subtree of key[leftSubtree(x)]  key[x] –all keys in the right subtree of key[x]  key[rightSubtree(x)] Example: F BH KDA

13. In-Order-Tree Walk What does the following code do? Prints elements in sorted (increasing) order This is called an in-order-tree walk –Preorder tree walk: print root, then left, then right –Postorder tree walk: print left, then right, then root 7 5 63 62 8 9 4

14. In-Order-Tree Walk Time complexity? –O(n) Prove that in-order-tree walk prints in monotonically increasing order? –By induction on size of tree

15. Operations on BSTs: Search Given a key and a pointer to a node, returns an element with that key or NULL: Iterative Tree-Search(x,k) while k  key[x] do if k < key[x] then x  x.left else x  x.right return x Which one is more efficient? 7 5 63 62 8 9 4 The iterative tree search is more efficient on most computers. The recursive tree search is more straightforward.

16. Operations on BSTs: Min-Max MIN: leftmost node MAX: rightmost node Running time? –O(h) where h = height of tree 7 5 63 62 8 9 4

17. Operations on BSTs: Successor-Predecessor Successor: the node with the smallest key greater than x.key –x has a right subtree: successor is minimum node in right subtree –x has no right subtree: successor is first ancestor of x whose left child is also ancestor of x –Intuition: As long as you move to the left up the tree, you’re visiting smaller nodes. 15 6 73 132 18 20 4 17 9

18. Operations of BSTs: Insert Adds an element x to the tree so that the binary search tree property continues to hold The basic algorithm –Insert node z, z.key = v, z.left = z.right = NIL –Maintain two pointes: x: trace the downward path y: “trailing pointer” to keep track of parent of x –Traverse the tree downward by comparing x.key with v –When x is NIL, it is at the correct position for node z –Compare v with y.key, and insert z at either y’s left or right, appropriately

19. BST Insert: Example Example: Insert C F BH KDA C

20. BST Search/Insert: Running Time What is the running time of TreeSearch() or TreeInsert()? A: O(h), where h = height of tree What is the height of a binary search tree? A: worst case: h = O(n) when tree is just a linear string of left or right children –Average case: h=O(lg n)

21. Sorting With BSTs It’s a form of quicksort! for i=1 to n TreeInsert(A[i]); InorderTreeWalk(root); 3 1 8 2 6 7 5 57 1 28 6 7 5 26 7 5 3 18 26 57

22. Sorting with BSTs Which do you think is better, quicksort or BSTSort? Why? A: quicksort –Sorts in place –Doesn’t need to build data structure

23. BST Operations: Delete Deletion is a bit tricky 3 cases: –x has no children: Remove x 7 5 63 62 8 9 4

24. BST Operations: Delete 3 cases: –x has no children: Remove x –x has one child: Splice out x –x has two children: Swap x with successor Perform case 1 or 2 to delete it 7 5 63 62 8 9 4 7 5 63 62 9 4 7 5 62 61 8 9 3 4 7 5 63 61 8 9 2 4 7 5 63 61 8 9 4 zz z successor(z) exchange

25. BST Operations: Delete Why will case 2 always go to case 0 or case 1? A: because when x has 2 children, its successor is the minimum in its right subtree, and that successor has no left child (hence 0 or 1 child). Could we swap x with predecessor instead of successor? A: yes. Would it be a good idea? A: might be good to alternate to avoid creating unbalanced tree.