1. Measuring Biodiversity 6/10/2016biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

2. Main Ideas How to define ‘biodiversity’? How to define ‘biodiversity’? Ways to measure biodiversity Ways to measure biodiversity Biodiversity and the relationship to the way ecosystems function Biodiversity and the relationship to the way ecosystems function Taxonomic methods used in relation to quantifying and studying biodiversity Taxonomic methods used in relation to quantifying and studying biodiversity Problems in general Problems in general 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

3. Main Ideas Primary causes of biodiversity loss Primary causes of biodiversity loss The benefits of biodiversity The benefits of biodiversity Biodiversity conservation efforts Biodiversity conservation efforts Questions? Questions? 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

4. How do we define ‘biodiversity’? The sum of all biotic variation from the level of genes to ecosystems. The sum of all biotic variation from the level of genes to ecosystems. The number, variety, and variability of living organisms in a quantified area. The number, variety, and variability of living organisms in a quantified area. 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

5. “Except in pockets of ignorance and malice, there is no longer an ideological war between conservationists and developers. Both share the perception that health and prosperity decline in a deteriorating environment. They also understand that useful products cannot be harvested from extinct species.” – Edward O. Wilson, Harvard University Biodiversity Expert 9-5 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

6. Biodiversity 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university Variety of living things, number of kinds Ecological diversity –different habitats, niches, species interactions Species diversity –different kinds of organisms, relationships among species Genetic diversity –different genes & combinations of genes within populations

7. Ecosystem diversity Ecosystem diversity = the number and variety of ecosystems Also encompasses differing communities and habitats Rapid vegetation change and varying landscapes within an ecosystem promote higher levels of biodiversity 9-7 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

8. Species diversity Species Diversity = the number or variety of species in the world or in a particular region - Richness = the number of species - Evenness or relative abundance = extent to which numbers of individuals of different species are equal or skewed - Speciation generates new species and adds to species richness - Extinction reduces species richness 9-8 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

9. Benefits of Biodiversity Ecosystem functions Ecosystem services Cleaning water, Cleaning air, Habitat & breeding areas for wildlife, … Aesthetic and cultural benefits 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

10. Natural Resources Management of natural resources – Assure availability of resources for the future – Three “philosophies” Maximum sustained yield Ecosystem-based management Adaptive management 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

11. Benefits of Biodiversity New food sources –Grains, fruits, vegetables, meat, fish 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

12. Benefits of Biodiversity Medicines Plants Jellyfish & sea anemones Nudibranchs Marine slugs 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

13. Biodiversity provides ecosystem services free of charge Provides food, shelter, fuel Purifies air and water, and detoxifies wastes Stabilizes climate, moderates floods, droughts, wind, temperature Generates and renews soil fertility and cycles nutrients Pollinates plants and controls pests and disease Maintains genetic resources Provides cultural and aesthetic benefits Allows us to adapt to change T The annual value of just 17 ecosystem services = $16 to 54 trillion per year 9-13 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

14. Biodiversity helps maintain ecosystem function Biodiversity increases the stability and resilience of communities and ecosystems - Decreased biodiversity reduces a natural system’s ability to function and provide services to our society The loss of a species affects ecosystems differently - If the species can be functionally replaced by others, it may make little difference - Extinction of a keystone species may cause other species to decline or disappear Precautionary principle: “To keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering” (Aldo Leopold) ‏ 9-14 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

15. Biodiversity enhances food security Genetic diversity within crops is enormously valuable - Turkey’s wheat crops received $50 billion worth of disease resistance from wild wheat Wild strains provide disease resistance and have the ability to grow back year after year without being replanted New potential food crops are waiting to be used - Serendipity berry produces a sweetener 3,000 times sweeter than sugar 9-15 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

16. Organisms provide drugs and medicines Each year pharmaceutical products owing their origin to wild species generate up to $150 billion in sales FIGURE 9.15 9-16 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

17. Biodiversity provides economic benefits through tourism and recreation Ecotourism is particularly beneficial in developing countries - Africa savanna-major tourist attraction Kenya, Zimbabwe, etc - Belize: reefs, caves, and rainforests Incentive to preserve natural areas and reduce impacts on the landscape and on native species Too many visitors can degrade the outdoor experience and disturb wildlife 9-17 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

18. Importance of biodiversity Ecological balance  Biogeochemical cycles, food chains, population controls by positive and negative feedback mechanisms Economic values  Timber, firewood, natural rubber,gums,drugs, medicine (penicillinm, quinine-cinchona, morphine-opium)  Agriculture-cattle ranching, tourism Genetic resources  Genes from wild plants and animals can be used to help breed better varities  -genetic resevoir Aesthetc values, education and scientific values 6/10/2016biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

19. Biodiversity How much biodiversity 1.7—2.0 million species Estimates to 100 million 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

20. Some groups contain more species than others Insects predominate over all other life-forms - 40% of all insects are beetles Groups accumulate species by - Adaptive radiation - Allopatric speciation - Low rates of extinction FIGURE 9.4 9-20 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

21. Species Richnesswww.nature.com/cgi-taf 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

22. Insects outnumber all other species FIGURE 9.5 9-22 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

23. Biodiversity is unevenly distributed Latitudinal gradient = species richness increases towards the equator Plant productivity and climate stability play key roles FIGURE 9.6 9-23 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

24. Latitudinal gradient has many causes FIGURE 9.7 9-24 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

25. Biodiversity loss and species extinction - Extinction = occurs when the last member of a species dies and the species ceases to exist - Extirpation = the disappearance of a particular population from a given area, but not the entire species globally - Endangered = species in imminent danger of becoming extirpated or extinct - Threatened = species likely to become endangered in the near future 9-25 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

26. Extinction is a natural process Paleontologists estimate 99% of all species that ever lived are now extinct Background rate of extinction = natural extinctions for a variety of reasons - 1 extinction per 1 to 10 million species for mammals and marine species - 1 species out of 1,000 mammal and marine species would go extinct every 1,000 to 10,000 years 9-26 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

27. Earth has experienced five previous mass extinction episodes In the past 440 million years, mass extinctions have eliminated at least 50% of all species Today’s mass extinction is caused by humans and humans will suffer as a result of it FIGURE 9.8 9-27 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

28. Humans set the sixth mass extinction in motion years ago Extinctions followed human arrival on islands and continents FIGURE 9.9 9-28 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

29. Current extinction rates are much higher than normal The Red List = an updated list of species facing high risks of extinctions - 23% of mammal species - 12% of bird species - 31 to 86% of all other species Since 1970, 58 fish species, 9 bird species, and 1 mammal species has gone extinct - Actual numbers are undoubtedly higher 9-29 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

30. Biodiversity loss is more than extinction The Living Planet Index quantifies degradation - Between 1970 and 2003, the Index fell by 40% FIGURE 9.10 9-30 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

31. There are several major causes of biodiversity loss Reasons for biodiversity losses are multifaceted and factors may interact synergistically Causes of population decline: - Habitat alteration - Invasive species - Pollution - Overharvesting - Climate change 9-31 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

32. Habitat alteration causes biodiversity loss The greatest cause of biodiversity loss - Farming simplifies communities - Grazing modifies the grassland structure and species composition - Clearing forests removes resources organisms need - Hydroelectric dams turn rivers into reservoirs upstream - Urbanization and suburban sprawl reduce natural communities - A few species (i.e., pigeons, rats) benefit from changing habitats 9-32 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

33. Invasive species cause biodiversity loss Introduction of non-native species to new environments - Accidental: zebra mussels - Deliberate: food crops Island species are especially vulnerable Invaders have no natural predators, competitors, or parasites Cost billions of dollars in economic damage 9-33 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

34. Pollution causes biodiversity loss Harms organisms in many ways - Air pollution degrades forest ecosystems - Water pollution adversely affects fish and amphibians - Agricultural runoff harms terrestrial and aquatic species - The effects of oil and chemical spills on wildlife are dramatic and well known 9-34 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

35. Overharvesting causes biodiversity loss Vulnerable species are large, few in number, long-lived, and have few young (K-selected species) ‏ - The Siberian tiger (The 1989 political freedom in Soviet Union brought the freedom to hunt) - Atlantic gray whale - Sharks - Gorillas 9-35 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

36. Climate change causes biodiversity loss Global impact on habitat and biodiversity Greenhouse gases modifies global weather patterns and increases the frequency of extreme weather events Increases stress on populations and forces organisms to shift their geographic ranges Most animals and plants will not be able to cope, as evolution has been about adaptation genetically over much more slowly-evolving time periods. 9-36 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

37. Warming has been the greatest in the Arctic FIGURE 9.13 9-37 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

38. Conservation biology arose in response to biodiversity loss Conservation biology = devoted to understanding the factors that influence the loss, protection, and restoration of biodiversity - An applied and goal-oriented science FIGURE 9.17 9-38 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

39. Conservation biologists work at multiple levels Use field data, lab data, theory, and experiments to study impacts of humans on other organisms Design, test, and implement ways to mitigate impacts Minimum viable population = how small a population can become before it runs into problems Metapopulations = a network of subpopulations - Small populations are most vulnerable to extinction and need special attention 9-39 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

40. Species richness results from island size and distance Fewer species colonize an island far from the mainland Large islands have higher immigration rates Large islands have lower extinction rates FIGURE 9.18 9-40 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

41. Small “islands” of forest rapidly lose species Forests are fragmented by roads and logging Small forest fragments lose diversity fastest - Starting with large species Fragmentation is one of the prime threats to biodiversity FIGURE 9.20 9-41 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

42. Fragmentation and biodiversity Suppose a critic of conservation tells you that human development increases biodiversity, pointing out that when a forest is fragmented, new habitats, such as grassy lots and gardens, may be introduced to an area and allow additional species to live there. How would you respond? weighing the issues 9-42 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

43. Umbrella species Conservation biologists use particular umbrella species as tools to conserve communities and ecosystems - helps protect less-charismatic animals Flagship species – large and 'charismatic' species used as spearheads for biodiversity conservation - The World Wildlife Fund’s panda bear Some organizations are moving beyond the single species approach to focus on whole landscapes 9-43 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

44. Both national and international conservation efforts are widely supported 1973: UN Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) – protects endangered species by banning international transport of their body parts 9-44 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

45. Other approaches highlight areas of high biodiversity Biodiversity hotspots – prioritizes regions most important globally for biodiversity - Support a great number of endemic species = species found nowhere else in the world - The area must have at least 1500 endemic plant species (0.5% of the world total) ‏ - It must have lost 70% of its habitat due to human impact FIGURE 9.22 9-45 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

46. There are 34 global biodiversity hotspots 2.3% of the planet’s land surface contains 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species FIGURE 9.23 9-46 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

47. Community- based conservation is increasingly popular Community-based conservation = conservation biologists actively engage local people in protecting land and wildlife - Protecting land deprives people access to resources - Can guarantee that these resources will not be used up or sold to foreign corporations and can instead be sustainably managed 9-47 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

48. Innovative economic strategies are being employed Debt-for-nature swap = a conservation organization pays off a portion of a developing country’s international debt - In exchange for a promise by the country to set aside reserves - Fund environmental education, and - Better manage protected areas Conservation concession = conservation organizations pay nations to conserve, and not sell, resources 9-48 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

49. Conclusion Loss of biodiversity threatens to result in a mass extinction Primary causes of biodiversity loss are: - Habitat alteration, invasive species, pollution, overharvesting of biotic resources, and climate change Human society cannot function without biodiversity’s pragmatic benefits Science can help save species, preserve habitats, restore populations, and keep natural ecosystems intact 9-49 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

50. Methods to Measure Biodiversity Species Richness Species Richness Species Evenness Species Evenness Disparity Disparity Species Rarity Species Rarity Genetic Variability. Genetic Variability. 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

51. Measuring Biodiversity… Species Richness; the total number of given species in a quantified area. Species Richness; the total number of given species in a quantified area. Species Evenness; the degree to which the number of individual organisms are evenly divided between different species of the community. Species Evenness; the degree to which the number of individual organisms are evenly divided between different species of the community. www.nature.com/cgi-taf 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

52. Measuring Biodiversity… Disparity; measures the phenotypic differences among species resulting from the differences genes within a population. Disparity; measures the phenotypic differences among species resulting from the differences genes within a population. Species Rarity; the rarity of individual organisms within a quantified area. Species Rarity; the rarity of individual organisms within a quantified area. http://www.rit.edu/~rhrsbi/GalapagosPages/DarwinFinch.html 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

53. Biodiversity and the Relationship to Ecosystem Functions Diverse communities are typically more stable and function more efficiently. Diverse communities are typically more stable and function more efficiently. Loss of a umbrella species leads to a unoccupied niche, in turn potentially affecting ecosystem processes. Loss of a umbrella species leads to a unoccupied niche, in turn potentially affecting ecosystem processes. 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

54. Forms of stability Resilience describes the speed with which a community returns to its former state after perturbation Resilience describes the speed with which a community returns to its former state after perturbation Resistance describes the ability of a community to avoid displacement in the first place Resistance describes the ability of a community to avoid displacement in the first place

55. Biodiversity & Exotic Species; Ecosystems with high measures of biodiversity are more resistant to invader species. Ecosystems with high measures of biodiversity are more resistant to invader species. http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/photos 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

56. Keystone & Umbrella Species Species whose presence or resource requirements affect ecosystem functions. Species whose presence or resource requirements affect ecosystem functions. Health of an umbrella species is a way to monitor the health of an ecosystem. Health of an umbrella species is a way to monitor the health of an ecosystem. 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

57. Keystone species Keystone species disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its biomass disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its biomass Such species play a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological community, affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem and helping to determine the types and numbers of various other species in the community e.g. terminal predators, elephants Such species play a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological community, affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem and helping to determine the types and numbers of various other species in the community e.g. terminal predators, elephants Ecological engineers alter the habitat and, in doing so, modify the fates and opportunities of other species Ecological engineers alter the habitat and, in doing so, modify the fates and opportunities of other species 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

58. organism that creates or modifies habitats organism that creates or modifies habitats Allogenic engineers modify the environment by mechanically changing materials from one form to another. Beavers in the process of clearcutting and damming, beavers alter their ecosystem extensively Allogenic engineers modify the environment by mechanically changing materials from one form to another. Beavers in the process of clearcutting and damming, beavers alter their ecosystem extensivelyclearcutting Different types and numbers of other organisms will thrive in the region of a beaver dam than would in a non-dammed region. Different types and numbers of other organisms will thrive in the region of a beaver dam than would in a non-dammed region. Autogenic engineers modify the environment by modifying themselves. As trees grow, their trunks and branches create habitats for other living things. Autogenic engineers modify the environment by modifying themselves. As trees grow, their trunks and branches create habitats for other living things. Humans and introduced species are very significant allogenic engineers Humans and introduced species are very significant allogenic engineers 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

59. Umbrella species either have large area requirements or use multiple habitats and thus overlap the habitat requirements of many other species. Umbrella species either have large area requirements or use multiple habitats and thus overlap the habitat requirements of many other species. - species selected for making conservation related decisions, - typically because protecting these species indirectly protects the many other species that make up the ecological community of its habitat e.g tigers and its habitat Link species are those that perform an important ecological function or provide critical links for energy transfer within or across complex food webs. Link species are those that perform an important ecological function or provide critical links for energy transfer within or across complex food webs. Their removal from the system would affect one or multiple other species (e.g., alligators and their role in the creation and maintenance of ponds and wet areas during times of drought). Their removal from the system would affect one or multiple other species (e.g., alligators and their role in the creation and maintenance of ponds and wet areas during times of drought). 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

60. indicator species: a species whose presence indicates the presence of a set of other species and whose absence indicates the lack of that entire set of species; a species whose presence indicates the presence of a set of other species and whose absence indicates the lack of that entire set of species; a keystone species, which is a species whose addition to or loss from an ecosystem leads to major changes in abundance or occurrence of at least one other species a keystone species, which is a species whose addition to or loss from an ecosystem leads to major changes in abundance or occurrence of at least one other species a species whose presence indicates human-created abiotic conditions such as air or water pollution (often called a pollution indicator species) a species whose presence indicates human-created abiotic conditions such as air or water pollution (often called a pollution indicator species) a dominant species that provides much of the biomass or number of individuals in an area a dominant species that provides much of the biomass or number of individuals in an area a species that indicates particular environmental conditions such as certain soil or rock types a species that indicates particular environmental conditions such as certain soil or rock types 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

61. a species thought to be sensitive to and therefore to serve as an early warning indicator of environmental changes such as global warming or modified fire regimes (sometimes called a bioindicator species) a species thought to be sensitive to and therefore to serve as an early warning indicator of environmental changes such as global warming or modified fire regimes (sometimes called a bioindicator species) a management indicator species, which is a species that reflects the effects of a disturbance regime or the efficacy of efforts to mitigate disturbance effects. a management indicator species, which is a species that reflects the effects of a disturbance regime or the efficacy of efforts to mitigate disturbance effects. Type 1, 2, and 4 have been proposed as indicators of biological diversity and types 3, 5, 6, and 7 as indicators of abiotic conditions and/or changes in ecological processes. Type 1, 2, and 4 have been proposed as indicators of biological diversity and types 3, 5, 6, and 7 as indicators of abiotic conditions and/or changes in ecological processes.abiotic 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

62. Taxonomic methods used in relation to quantifying biodiversity  Phylogenic Species Concept  Biological Species Concept  Evolutionary Species Concept 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

63. Phylogenic Species Concept taxa are separate species if they can be diagnosed as distinct either by phenotypic or genotypic information. taxa are separate species if they can be diagnosed as distinct either by phenotypic or genotypic information. Leads to an increase in the number of species. Leads to an increase in the number of species. Does not allow for natural variations within populations to be listed as separate species. Does not allow for natural variations within populations to be listed as separate species. 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

64. The taxonomy of species Taxonomists = scientists who classify species using physical appearance and genetics - Domain - Kingdom - Phylum - Class - Order - Family - Genus - Species Every species has a two-part scientific name: genus and species 9-64 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

65. Biological Species Concept Groups of organisms that can interbreed freely under natural conditions. Groups of organisms that can interbreed freely under natural conditions. Most commonly used of the three Most commonly used of the three 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

66. Evolutionary Species Concept Groups organisms together using an ancestral/descendant relationship that is traceable in the fossil record Groups organisms together using an ancestral/descendant relationship that is traceable in the fossil record Focuses on studying the morphological features of closely related organisms. Focuses on studying the morphological features of closely related organisms. 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

67. Measuring Biodiversity The simplest measure of biodiversity is the number of species – called species richness. –Usually only count resident species, and not accidental or temporary immigrants Another concept of species diversity is heterogeneity: Community 1Community 2 Species A9950 Species B150 Heterogeneity is higher in a community where there are more species and when the species are more equally abundant. 6/10/2016biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

68. Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (H) Variables associated with the Shannon-Weiner Diversity index:  S – total number of species in the community (richness)  p i – proportion of S made up of the i th species  H max = ln(S)  E H – equitability (evenness; b/t 0 and 1) = H / H max H = -  p i (lnp i )  Larger H = more diversity 6/10/2016biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

69. Species richness and equitability affect the Shannon Wiener index. 6/10/2016biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

70. Simpson’s Index N = total number of individuals p i = proportion of each species Simpson’s Index of Diversity = 1 – D –Ranges from 0 to 1  Low to high diversity D =D = 1 -  p i 2 ranges from 0 to 1 6/10/2016biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

71. Species richness and equitability affect Simpson’s index. 6/10/2016biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

72. Problems in General Measuring biodiversity is ultimately a complex process involving many facets. Measuring biodiversity is ultimately a complex process involving many facets. Various applications of species concepts either divide and/or group organisms together. Various applications of species concepts either divide and/or group organisms together. Biodiversity can’t be reduced to a single number. Biodiversity can’t be reduced to a single number. Studying biodiversity using all ecosystem processes at all scales. Studying biodiversity using all ecosystem processes at all scales. In attempting to preserve biodiversity we often are ‘speciesists’ ;favoring the cute and popular species. In attempting to preserve biodiversity we often are ‘speciesists’ ;favoring the cute and popular species. 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

73. Conclusions Generally, areas of higher productivity correlate with increases in biodiversity. Generally, areas of higher productivity correlate with increases in biodiversity. Biodiversity is also measured using the genetic variability of different populations of a single species. Biodiversity is also measured using the genetic variability of different populations of a single species. Biodiversity can’t be reduced to a single number, thus creating complications when comparing biodiversity in different ecosystems. Biodiversity can’t be reduced to a single number, thus creating complications when comparing biodiversity in different ecosystems. The importance of biodiversity is accepted by some and disregarded by many others. The importance of biodiversity is accepted by some and disregarded by many others. 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university

74. QUESTIONS… How do different taxonomic methods create potential problems in measuring biodiversity? How do different taxonomic methods create potential problems in measuring biodiversity? How do difficulties in measuring biodiversity create complications for policy makers and administrative regulations? How do difficulties in measuring biodiversity create complications for policy makers and administrative regulations? Can we study all processes at all scales? Can we study all processes at all scales? Why should anyone care about‘biodiversity’ ? 6/10/2016 biodiversity- dept livestock and wildlife:midlands state university