2. AP Biology 2007-2008 Control of Prokaryotic (Bacterial) Genes

3. AP Biology Bacterial metabolism Bacteria need to respond quickly to changes in their environment  if they have enough of a product, need to stop production why? waste of energy to produce more how? stop production of enzymes for synthesis  if they find new food/energy source, need to utilize it quickly why? metabolism, growth, reproduction how? start production of enzymes for digestion STOP GO

4. AP Biology Remember Regulating Metabolism? Feedback inhibition  product acts as an allosteric inhibitor of 1 st enzyme in tryptophan pathway  but this is wasteful production of enzymes = inhibition - -

5. AP Biology Different way to Regulate Metabolism Gene regulation  instead of blocking enzyme function, block transcription of genes for all enzymes in tryptophan pathway saves energy by not wasting it on unnecessary protein synthesis = inhibition - Now, that’s a good idea from a lowly bacterium! - -

6. AP Biology Gene regulation in bacteria Cells vary amount of specific enzymes by regulating gene transcription  turn genes on or turn genes off turn genes OFF example if bacterium has enough tryptophan then it doesn’t need to make enzymes used to build tryptophan turn genes ON example if bacterium encounters new sugar (energy source), like lactose, then it needs to start making enzymes used to digest lactose STOP GO

7. AP Biology Bacteria group genes together Operon  genes grouped together with related functions example: all enzymes in a metabolic pathway  promoter = RNA polymerase binding site single promoter controls transcription of all genes in operon transcribed as one unit & a single mRNA is made  operator = DNA binding site of repressor protein

8. AP Biology So how can these genes be turned off? Repressor protein  binds to DNA at operator site  blocking RNA polymerase  blocks transcription

9. AP Biology Inducible Operon - Lactose operon What happens when lactose is present? Need to make lactose-digesting enzymes Lactose is allosteric regulator of repressor protein

10. AP Biology Regulatory Gene promoter operator Structural genes Active Repressor Protein a) Lactose absent, repressor active operon off When the active repressor protein binds to the operator, RNA polymerase cannot transcribe genes to produce RNA

11. AP Biology mRNA enzyme1enzyme2enzyme3enzyme4 operatorpromoter Inducible operon: lactose DNATATA RNA polymerase repressor repressor protein repressor lactose – repressor protein complex lactose lac repressor gene1gene2gene3gene4 Digestive pathway model When lactose is present, binds to lac repressor protein & triggers repressor to release DNA  induces transcription RNA polymerase 1234 lac conformational change in repressor protein! lac

12. AP Biology Animation Lac Operon is the On/Off Switch Volume control is based on glucose levels  High Glucose levels- Bacteria cells prefer to use glucose for ATP source – more efficient Rate of lactose use goes down – Rate of transcription decreases  HOW?

13. AP Biology  CAP – catabolic activator protein  cAMP- cylcic adenine monophosphate High Glucose Levels  Low levels of cAMP  CAP is inactive – Does not bind to DNA, therefore rate of transcription decreases Low Glucose Levels  High levels of cAMP  cAMP binds to CAP  Increases efficiency of polymerase binding  High Rates of Transcription

14. AP Biology operatorpromoter Operon model DNATATA RNA polymerase repressor = repressor protein Operon: operator, promoter & genes they control serve as a model for gene regulation gene1gene2gene3gene4 RNA polymerase Repressor protein turns off gene by blocking RNA polymerase binding site. 1234 mRNA enzyme1enzyme2enzyme3enzyme4

15. AP Biology mRNA enzyme1enzyme2enzyme3enzyme4 operatorpromoter Repressible operon: tryptophan DNATATA RNA polymerase tryptophan repressor repressor protein repressor tryptophan – repressor protein complex Synthesis pathway model When excess tryptophan is present, it binds to tryp repressor protein & triggers repressor to bind to DNA  blocks (represses) transcription gene1gene2gene3gene4 conformational change in repressor protein! 1234 repressor trp RNA polymerase trp

16. AP Biology Tryptophan operon What happens when tryptophan is present? Don’t need to make tryptophan-building enzymes Tryptophan is allosteric regulator of repressor protein

17. AP Biology Jacob & Monod: lac Operon Francois Jacob & Jacques Monod  first to describe operon system  coined the phrase “operon” 1961 | 1965 Francois JacobJacques Monod

18. AP Biology Operon summary Repressible operon  usually functions in anabolic pathways synthesizing end products  when end product is present in excess, cell allocates resources to other uses Inducible operon  usually functions in catabolic pathways, digesting nutrients to simpler molecules  produce enzymes only when nutrient is available cell avoids making proteins that have nothing to do, cell allocates resources to other uses

19. AP Biology Don’t be repressed! How can I induce you to ask Questions?

20. AP Biology Control of Eukaryotic Genes

21. AP Biology The BIG Questions… How are genes turned on & off in eukaryotes? How do cells with the same genes differentiate to perform completely different, specialized functions?

22. AP Biology Evolution of gene regulation Prokaryotes  single-celled  evolved to grow & divide rapidly  must respond quickly to changes in external environment exploit transient resources Gene regulation  turn genes on & off rapidly flexibility & reversibility  adjust levels of enzymes for synthesis & digestion

23. AP Biology Evolution of gene regulation Eukaryotes  multicellular  evolved to maintain constant internal conditions while facing changing external conditions homeostasis  regulate body as a whole growth & development  long term processes specialization  turn on & off large number of genes must coordinate the body as a whole rather than serve the needs of individual cells

24. AP Biology Points of control The control of gene expression can occur at any step in the pathway from gene to functional protein 1.packing/unpacking DNA 2.transcription 3.mRNA processing 4.mRNA transport 5.translation 6.protein processing 7.protein degradation

25. AP Biology Notes Below Review- Do not copy How do you fit all that DNA into nucleus?  DNA coiling & folding double helix nucleosomes chromatin fiber looped domains chromosome from DNA double helix to condensed chromosome 1. DNA packing

26. AP Biology Nucleosomes “Beads on a string”  1 st level of DNA packing  histone proteins 8 protein molecules positively charged amino acids bind tightly to negatively charged DNA DNA packing movie 8 histone molecules

27. AP Biology DNA packing as gene control Degree of packing of DNA regulates transcription  tightly wrapped around histones no transcription genes turned off  heterochromatin darker DNA (H) = tightly packed  euchromatin lighter DNA (E) = loosely packed H E

28. AP Biology DNA methylation Methylation of DNA blocks transcription factors  no transcription  genes turned off  attachment of methyl groups (–CH 3 ) to cytosine C = cytosine  nearly permanent inactivation of genes ex. inactivated mammalian X chromosome = Barr body

29. AP Biology Histone acetylation Acetylation of histones unwinds DNA  loosely wrapped around histones enables transcription genes turned on  attachment of acetyl groups (–COCH 3 ) to histones conformational change in histone proteins transcription factors have easier access to genes

30. AP Biology 2. Transcription initiation Control regions on DNA  promoter nearby control sequence on DNA  enhancer distant control sequences on DNA binding of activator proteins “enhanced” rate (high level) of transcription

31. AP Biology Model for Enhancer action Enhancer DNA sequences  distant control sequences Activator proteins  bind to enhancer sequence & stimulates transcription Silencer proteins  bind to enhancer sequence & block gene transcription Turning on Gene movie

32. AP Biology 3. Post-transcriptional control Alternative RNA splicing  variable processing of exons creates a family of proteins

33. AP Biology 4. Regulation of mRNA degradation Life span of mRNA determines amount of protein synthesis  mRNA can last from hours to weeks RNA processing movie

34. AP Biology RNA interferenceRNA interference (Ted Anim)(Ted Anim) Micro RNAs (miRNA) Micro RNAs (miRNA)  short segments of RNA (7-8 bases) bind to mRNA create sections of double-stranded mRNA “death” tag for mRNA  triggers degradation of mRNA  cause gene “silencing” post-transcriptional control turns off gene = no protein produced NEW! miRNA

35. AP Biology Action of miRNA miRNA double-stranded miRNA + mRNA mRNA degraded functionally turns gene off Hot…Hot new topic in biology mRNA for translation breakdown enzyme (RISC) – RNA inducing Silencing Complex dicer enzyme

36. AP Biology RNA Interference The phenomenon in which RNA molecules in a cell are destroyed if they have a sequence complementary to an introduced double-stranded RNA

37. AP Biology RNA interference 1990s | 2006 Andrew Fire Stanford Craig Mello U Mass “for their discovery of RNA interference — gene silencing by double-stranded RNA”

38. AP Biology Small interfering RNA (siRNA)  Functionally similar to miRNA  siRNA formed from longer double stranded RNA molecules

39. AP Biology 5. Control of translation Block initiation of translation stage  regulatory proteins attach to 5' end of mRNA prevent attachment of ribosomal subunits & initiator tRNA block translation of mRNA to protein Control of translation movie

40. AP Biology 6-7. Protein processing & degradation Protein processing  folding, cleaving, adding sugar groups, targeting for transport Protein degradation  ubiquitin tagging  proteasome degradation Protein processing movie

41. AP Biology Ubiquitin “Death tag”  mark unwanted proteins with a label  76 amino acid polypeptide, ubiquitin  labeled proteins are broken down rapidly in "waste disposers" proteasomes 1980s | 2004 Aaron Ciechanover Israel Avram Hershko Israel Irwin Rose UC Riverside

42. AP Biology Proteasome Protein-degrading “machine”  cell’s waste disposer  breaks down any proteins into 7-9 amino acid fragments cellular recycling play Nobel animation

43. AP Biology Turn your Question Genes on!