1. CHAPTER 4: PREVENTING INJURIES THROUGH FITNESS TRAINING

2. PERIODIZATION The concept of periodization is an approach to conditioning that attempts to bring about peak performance while reducing injuries and overtraining in the athlete by developing a training and conditioning program to be followed throughout the various seasons. It takes into account athletes’ different training and conditioning needs during different seasons and modifies the program according to the individual needs. Training is organized into seasons: preparatory, competition, and transition.

3. PREPARATORY PERIOD Mainly during off-season. Three phases: hypertrophy/endurance, strength, and power phase. Hypertrophy/endurance – training is an a low intensity with a high volume of repetitions, using activities that may or may not be directly related to a specific sport. The goal is to develop a base of endurance, on which more intense training can occur. This will last about 2 months. Strength – intensity and volume progress to moderate levels. Weight training activities would become more specific to the sport or event. Power – occurs in the preseason. The athlete trains at a high intensity at or neat the level of competition. The volume of training is decreased so that full recovery is allowed between sessions.

4. COMPETITION PERIOD This may last for only a week or less. Seasonal sports will last longer. This period involves high intensity training at a low volume. As training decreases, an increased amount of time is spent on skill training or strategy sessions and in maintaining levels of flexibility, strength, and cardiorespiratory endurance established in the off-season. It may be necessary to establish weekly training cycles. During a cycle, training should be intense early in the week, progressing to moderate, and finally light the day before a competition. The goal is to make sure that the athlete is at peak levels of fitness and performance on days of competition.

5. TRANSITION PERIOD Postseason begins after the last competition and comprises the early part of the off-season. It is generally unstructured and the athlete is encouraged to participate in sport activities on a recreational basis. The idea is to allow the athlete to escape both physically and psychologically from the rigor of a highly organized training regimen. The value of this time should never be underestimated.

6. CROSS TRAINING The concept is an approach to training and conditioning for a specific sport that involves substitution of alternative activities that have some carryover value to that sport. This is useful in both the postseason and the off-season to help athletes maintain fitness levels and avoid the boredom that typically occurs from following the same training regimen and using the same techniques for conditioning as during the preseason and competitive season.

7. SAID PRINCIPLE Process of training and conditioning. Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demands. When the body is subjected to stresses and overloads of varying intensities, it will gradually adapt over time to overcome whatever demands are place on it and, in doing so, minimize the potential for injury. The stress must not be great enough to produce damage or injury before the body has had a chance to adjust specifically to the increased demands. Therefore, to reduce the likelihood of injury, the principles of training and conditioning should be emphasized.

8. PRINCIPLES OF CONDITIONING 1.Warm-up/cool down 2.Motivation 3.Overload 4.Consistency 5.Progression 6.Intensity 7.Specificity 8.Individuality 9.Stress 10.Safety

9. FLEXIBILITY The range of motion possible about a given joint or series of joints. A lack of flexibility in an athlete will potentially impair performance. Increased flexibility may increase an athlete’s performance through improved balance and reaction time. It has a beneficial effect on injury prevention. Normal bone structure, fat, and skin or scar tissue may limit the ability to move through a full range of motion. Muscles and their tendons are most often responsible for limiting range of motion. Connective tissue, such as ligaments and the joint capsule, may be subject to contractures. Athletes may have slack ligaments and joint capsules. They are termed loose-jointed.

10. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE ROM Active ROM refers to that portion of the total range of motion through which a joint can be moved by an active muscle contraction. Passive ROM refers to the portion of the total range of motion through which a joint may be moved passively, with no muscle contraction.

11. AGONIST AND ANTAGONIST MUSCLES The agonist does the work, the antagonist lengthens through stretching. In a knee extension, the quads are the agonist muscles and the hamstrings are the antagonist muscles.

12. STRETCHING TECHNIQUES: IMPROVING FLEXIBILITY Dynamic – uses repetitive bouncing motions. Should be used with caution by sedentary, inactive people. Muscle injury may occur. Muscle soreness can also increase. Static – stretching muscle to the point of discomfort and then holding it at that point for an extended time. It is extremely effective. Hold for 20-30 seconds. Much safer technique to increase flexibility. Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation – involves alternating contractions and stretches. First used by therapists for treating patients who had various types of neuromuscular paralysis.  Slow-reversal-hold-relax – supine with knee extended and ankle flexed o 90 degrees, the partner passively flexes the leg at the hip joint to the point at which the athlete feels slight discomfort in the muscle. Then, the athlete begins pushing against the partners resistance by contracting the hamstring muscle. After 10 seconds, the athlete relaxes the hamstring muscles and contracts the quads while the partner applies passive pressure to further stretch the hamstrings. The relaxation phase is 10 seconds.  Contract-relax – hamstrings are isotonically contracted so that the leg actually moves toward the floor during the push phase.  Hold-relax – an isometric hamstring contraction against immovable resistance during the push phase.

13. STRENGTH AND FLEXIBILITY Bulky muscles can prevent normal range of motion. When strength training is not done properly, movement can be impaired. If weight training is done properly through a full range of motion, it will not impair flexibility. Proper strength training improves dynamic flexibility and can enhance power and coordination.

14. MUSCULAR STRENGTH, ENDURANCE, AND POWER * Muscular strength – the ability of a muscle to generate force against some resistance. * Muscular endurance – the ability to perform repetitive muscular contractions against some resistance for an extended time. * Power – the ability to generate force rapidly.

15. SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION * Isometric – occurs when the muscle contracts to produce tension, but there is no change in the muscle. * Concentric - the muscle shortens while tension is developed to overcome or move some resistance. * Eccentric – the resistance greater than the muscular force being produced, and the muscle lengthens while producing tension.

16. WHAT DETERMINES STRENGTH? * Size of the muscle (hypertrophy – increase in muscle size, atrophy – decrease in muscle size) * Number of muscle fibers – inherited characteristic. Some people are born with a large number of muscle fibers. * Neuromuscular efficiency – when a muscle is overloaded, the muscle is forced to work efficiently. This is achieved by getting more motor units to fire, causing a stronger contraction. * Biomechanical factors – bones, with the muscles and tendons, form a system of levers and pulleys that collectively generate force to move an external object. * Fast-twitch vs. slow-twitch muscle fibers – power, explosive and strength movements tend to be more fast-twitch. Endurance tends to be more slow-twitch. * Level of physical activity – those that are more active tend to keep their muscle strength. * Overtraining – can result in staleness (the deterioration in usual standard of performance.)

17. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES THAT OCCUR FOR INCREASE IN STRENGTH The muscle increases in size, or hypertrophy. It is an increase in the size and number of small contractile protein filaments within the muscle, called myofilaments. The cross- sectional diameter of the muscle fibers increase. This is seen more in males.

18. CORE STABILIZATION TRAINING This area is the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex. This is where the center of gravity is located. This area involves 29 muscles. Core stabilization will improve dynamic postural control; ensure appropriate muscular balance and joint movement around the complex; allow for the expression of dynamic functional strength; and improve neuromuscular efficiency throughout the entire body allowing for optimal acceleration, deceleration, and dynamic stabilization. It also provides proximal stability for efficient lower extremity movements. A weak core is a fundamental problem of inefficient movements, which leads to injury. It is designed to gain strength, neuromuscular control, power, and muscle endurance. It should be systematic, progressive, and functional. Velezercise

19. RESISTANCE TRAINING Isometric exercise – force develops while muscle length remains constant.  Isometric Isometric Progressive resistance exercise – force develops while the muscle shortens or lengthens.  PRE PRE  PRE PRE  Cybex Cybex Isokinetic exercise – force develops while muscle is contracting at a constant velocity.  Isokinetic Isokinetic Circuit training – uses a combination of isometric, PRE, or isokinetic exercises organized into a series of stations.  Circuit Training Circuit Training Plyometric exercise – uses a rapid eccentric stretch of the muscle to facilitate an explosive concentric contraction.  Plyometric Plyometric Calisthenics – uses body weight for resistance.  Calisthenics Calisthenics Functional strength training – uses functional concentric, eccentric, and isometric muscle contractions in 3 planes of motion simultaneously.  Functional Strength Training Functional Strength Training

20. STRENGTH TRAINING FOR FEMALES Females with higher testosterone will develop more muscle. They also have increased facial and body hair, and a deeper voice. The average female does not have to worry about developing large bulky muscles. Muscle tone is improved – adding definition to the muscles visible through the skin. Concerns for Female Lifters

21. OPEN VS. CLOSED-KINETIC CHAIN EXERCISES An open-kinetic chain exists when the foot or hand is not in contact with the ground or some other surface. In a closed-kinetic chain, the foot or hand is weight-bearing. In training and conditioning, the use of closed-chain strengthening techniques has become a widely used technique because these exercises tend to be more functional since most sports activities are weight-bearing. Closed-kinetic chain exercises use varying combinations of isometric, concentric, and eccentric contractions which must occur simultaneously in different muscle groups within the chain. Open vs. Closed-Kinetic Chain

22. CARDIORESPIRATORY FITNESS Aerobic activity – great for building cardiorespiratory fitness. The intensity of the activity is low enough that the cardiovascular system can supply enough oxygen to continue the activity for long periods. Anaerobic activity – the demand for oxygen is greater than the body’s ability to deliver oxygen. The capacity of the cardiorespiratory system to carry oxygen through out the body depends on the coordinated function of 4 components – the heart, blood vessels, blood, and lungs. During exercise, muscles use oxygen at a much higher rate, and thus the heart must pump oxygenated blood to meet the increased demand.  Heart Pumping Heart Pumping

23. THE BODY USING OXYGEN Maximum aerobic capacity – the greatest rate at which oxygen can be taken in and used during exercise. It determines how much oxygen can be used during 1 minute of maximal exercise. Normal maximum oxygen utilization for most men and women aged 15-25 years falls in the range of 38 to 46 ml/kg/min. A male world class marathon runner may have a capacity of 70 to 80 ml/kg/min and a female world class runner may have 60 to 70 ml/kg/min. The capacity is linked to genetics.

24. CARDIORESPIRATORY ENDURANCE Continuous training – uses exercises performed at the same level of intensity for long periods. It has 4 considerations – type, frequency, intensity, and duration of activity. Example – aerobic activity (walking, swimming, running, cycling, etc)  Continuous Training Continuous Training Target heart rate zone: 220-age=maximum heart rate. Maximum heart x.60 and Maximum heart rate x.80 gives you the limits in which your heart rate should fall within. Interval training – intermittent activities. It includes a training and recovery period.  Interval Training Interval Training Fartlek training – it is a type of cross country running. It means “speed play”. It is like interval training, but with varied pace and speed.  Fartlek Training Fartlek Training