1. Questioning Intuition Through Reflective Engagement Chris Schmidt Villanova University christopher.schmidt@villanova.edu Slides available at www.cschmidtphd.comwww.cschmidtphd.com under “Research” tab

2. What are the Qualities of an Effective Counselor? Effective counselors function at high levels of cognitive complexity (Goodman & West-Olatunji, 2009; Granello, 2010) Cognitive complexity can be developed & measured Ego Development Moral Development Intellectual Development

3. Cognitively Complex Counselors… Have increased accuracy in their clinical diagnoses Show more effective utilization of empathy Show increased accuracy in client conceptualizations Have a greater acknowledgement of multicultural factors impacting counseling Give more refined descriptions of clients Have less focus on self and inadequacies Are less likely to view their clients negatively Tend to be less directive with clients (Borders, 1989; Choate & Granello, 2006; Goodman & West-Olatunji, 2009; Granello, 2010; McAuliffe et al., 2012)

4. Cultivating Cognitive Complexity ● Developed through specific classroom interventions as well as interactions: ● Intra & interpersonal reflective engagement ● Intellectually safe classroom culture ● Meaningful and purposeful dialogic interactions between students and teachers (Briggs & Pehrsson, 2008; Magnuson et al., 2003; Schrader, 2004; Sexton, 2000)

6. Defining reflection “Reflective judgments are made by examining and evaluating relevant information, opinion, and available explanations (the process of reflective thinking), then constructing a plausible solution for the problem at hand, acknowledging that the solution itself is open to further evaluation and scrutiny” (King & Kitchner, 1994). “A persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey, 1933).

7. Characteristics of Reflection – Quality Thoughts & Feelings Authenticity – Consistency “The key to effective reflection is continuity; observations need to be continually processed, challenged, and connected with other information” (Eyler, 2002). – Dewey… “careful consideration…” – Engagement Environment/ others “more knowing other” peer processing

8. Process & Outcomes of Reflection Process Concrete Experience in natural world Observation of Experience Restructuring Development Outcome New knowledge/ information Linking (creating habits) Integration Moral, Ego, Cognitive, Spiritual

9. Review and get more specific… 1. Better counselors are more cognitively complex 2. Reflective engagement plays a significant role in enhancing cognitive complexity 3. Moral/ Ethical development (thinking processes) directly relates to cognitive complexity 4. A greater understanding of individual moral thinking processes can increase our ability to be deliberate and effective at planning pedagogy toward enhancing moral development and therefore cognitive complexity

10. What to do? You run an orphanage and have had a hard time meeting your financial obligations. A car dealership offers you a new van worth $15,000 for free if you will falsely report to the government that the dealership donated a van worth $30,000. You really need the van and it will give you an opportunity to make the children happy. Do you agree to take the van?

11. The Rationalist Model A’s Affect A’s Reasoning A’s Judgment Eliciting Situation

12. “a fading paradigm” “But after 50 years the Standard Model now looks a bit shop worn. It no longer animates the leading edge of developmental science” (Lapsley & Hill, 2008, p. 314). “The model for human decision making is no longer the rational individual who makes intentional choices through conscious, serial processing… Instead… decision and choices are influenced not only by externalities such as the social context processed implicitly; they are also driven by internal multiple unconscious systems operating in parallel, often automatically and without our awareness” (Narvaez & Vyadich, 2008, p. 292).

13. Dual Systems Cognitive Processing System 1 (intuition) Sensitivity Heuristic Implicit/ Tacit “Hot” (affectively laden) Deliberate without intention (automatic) Natural/ biological/ social/ exposure/ experience Prone to error (‘moral blunders’) Personalized System 2 (reasoning) Judgment Analytical Explicit “Cold” (rational) Demands attention/ Effortful (controlled) Formal instruction/ Underlying principles/ rule based De-personalization

14. Impact of Intuition We actually make decisions… Without deliberate thought (Hammond, 2000; Hogarth, 2001). Emotional Cues (Moll et al., 2005) Unconsciously (Narvaez & Lapsley, 2006) Converging psychological evidence suggests that most human decisions are made without deliberative thought (Hammond, 2000; Hogarth, 2001) (Narvaez & Lapsley, 2006, p. 149). Consistently, neuro-imaging evidence reveals the activation of emotionally relevant brain structures” when people make decisions (Green & Haidt, 2002; Greene, Sommerville, Nystrom, Darley, & Cohen, 2001; Moll et al., 2002; Moll et al., 2005 in Barsky, Kaplan & Beal, 2010 p. 2). The sense that we consciously make most of our decisions is epiphenomenal and not empirically supported (Cotterill, 1999; Damasio, 1999; Libet, 1985; Wegner, 2002)” [epiphenomenal: A secondary phenomenon that results from and accompanies another]

15. Intuition Fast and effortless Process is unintentional/ automatic Process is inaccessible; only results enter awareness Does not demand attentional resources Pattern matching; thought is metaphorical, holistic Common to all mammals Context dependent Platform dependent (depends on the brain and body that houses it) Reasoning Slow and effortful Process is intentional and controllable Process is consciously accessible and viewable Demands attentional resources, which are limited Symbol manipulation; thought is truth preserving, analytical Unique to humans over age 2 and perhaps some language-trained apes Context independent Platform independent (the process can be transported to any rule following organism or machine)

16. Shifting the Standard Model A’s Affect/ Intuition A’s Reasoning A’s Judgment Eliciting Situation

17. The Social Intuitionist Model (Haidt) A’s IntuitionA’s Judgment A’s Reasoning B’s IntuitionB’s Judgment B’s Reasoning 2 3 4 1 Four main processes: 1) the intuitive judgment link 2) the post-hoc reasoning link 3) the reasoned persuasion link 4) the social persuasion link Two rare processes: 5) the reasoned judgment link 6) the private reflection link 5 6 Eliciting Situation

18. sides to the debate  Reasoning as Senior Partner I. Rationalist Model  Intuition as Senior Partner I. Social Intuitionist Model

19. Is there a “private reflection link”? i.e. Can intuition be mediated? Intuition Judgment Reasoning Eliciting Situation Reflective Engagement

20. Challenges of Dissecting the Two ● “the task of distinguishing deliberative from intuitive judgments, in vivo, will be difficult… heavy cognitive demands of making moral judgments and short operative time envelope present as two obstacles to observation… one cannot observe a phenomenon without interfering with the phenomenon itself as it would have existed independent of the observation. In the course of forming a moral judgment, self- observation will likely interfere with the process of judgment formation… will have the effect of contaminating the judgment itself…. “ (Frimer & Walker, 2008, p. 339)

21. Background 172 undergraduate students (45 in experimental group) 15-week ethics course Case discussion in class; In-class presentations on ethical dilemmas Outside of class Control group No additions Experimental group Deliberate Psychological Education Role-taking experience Support & Challenge Reflection Balance of Reflection and Role taking Continuity Significant change found in experimental group on multiple measures of the DIT-II

22. ThemeNarrative Illustration Observed Change “I have learned that decision-making is a process and not just one step. This has helped me to be more discerning, cautious and sure about my intentions.” “This semester has humbled me to the point of realizing that I don’t always have the best answer to ethical dilemmas. Sometimes it is in the council of others where we truly see the light.” Enhanced Decision Making “I have developed significantly in terms of how I recognize what may potentially be an ethical issue.” “I never usually stopped to think about my decision making process and how I look at ethical situations, but after taking this course I am much more aware of my cognitive processes.” Broadened Perspective Taking “I realized that the most significant change has been the development of my ethical reasoning from a personal level to a societal level.” “In this class I have learned to think about other people’s lives when making ethical decisions, as well as taking into account that other people have different moral values. I have grown in a way that I really think about the greater good before making decisions.” Consideration of Multiple Options “I now take more time in analyzing situations and thinking through various factors, or different perspectives instead of hastily planning what action to take.” “I approach problems less with a full head of steam and try to focus on evaluating every aspect of the dilemma.” Personal Ethical Principles “This course has challenged me to define my value system and standards, which has actually made me more aware of my decisions and myself.” “Over the length of this course, I believe that the main benefits I will be taking away with me are awareness, impartiality, and dedication to a set of principles.” Moving Toward Action “I am simply more aware about ethical reasoning taking place every single day in my life” “It seems that I’m taking a proactive approach to moral reasoning rather than a reactive one.”

23. Qualitative Inquiry 1. to what extent are the study’s participants aware of the impact of intuition on their cognitive processes without being explicitly prompted to consider intuition itself? “…I am much more aware of my cognitive processes.” 2. If participants do explicitly recognize the impact of intuition, how do they understand it, and what are their views as to its impact when making moral decisions? “…actually made me more aware of my decisions and myself.” “It seems that I’m taking a proactive approach to moral reasoning rather than a reactive one.”

24. Overview of GT Approach 1. 2 researchers; 6 months 2. Full review of all journal entries & initial open coding 3. Background literature reflection on Intuition and Reasoning 4. Second open coding process- line by line 5. Axial Coding- macro approach 6. Selective Coding- micro approach 7. Core Category 8. Additional Selective Coding 9. Integrative Diagram

25. Axial Coding ● Individuality/ Uniqueness ● Multiple Viewpoints ● Complexity ● Uncertainty ● Questioning Intuition ● Quick Judgment/ Instinct ● Intuition Stated ● Questioning Decision Making ● Internal Discord ● Stopping/ Pausing to Consider ● Needs Reflection ● Without Thought ● A process ● Implicit Bias ● Personal Bias ● Bias- Family ● Bias- Beliefs/ ideologies ● Bias- Societal ● Contextual ● Socially acceptable ● Part of Social Bias-- Approval of Others ● Differentiation between self vs. Others ● Consideration of Others ● Common Good ● Self Focused ● Emotional Element ● Empathetic Regard ● Personal Feelings/ Values ● Enhanced Awareness ● Perception of Change ● Implicit connection ● Forced to consider ● Experience ● Consequences ● Uncategorized

26. Results: Question Intuition Participants: Recognized the impact of intuition (more so toward the end of the semester) Found intuition to be informative but “suspect” Expressed that it must be questioned Realized that it can be generated from selfish/ biased points of view Many expressed that it was through reflection that they came to these realizations

27. Questioning Intuition “I think the most important thing that I’ve learned is that I don’t necessarily know what is always the most ethical thing to do, of my own beliefs and conscience.” “Even if a person feels that there is only one possible correct moral choice when it comes to making some kind of decision, they still need to step back before making any rash decisions” “I have learned that some situations require us to separate our personal feelings and bias. It is not always our initial response or instinct that provides the best course of action.”

29. Accessing Intuition Feelings: emotional experience enhances awareness ‘I find that when I am faced with a moral dilemma, I base my decision on what feels right inside.’ ‘I’ve realized that my ethical principles aren’t really principles at all, I’ve simply been following what my unconscious and gut feeling tell me is the “right thing.’ Defining Characteristics: Students used phrases: ‘instinctual’, ‘an impulse’, ‘an internal drive’, ‘immediate’, ‘quick judgment,’ and ‘rash decision.’ ‘It is very easy to fall into step with preconceived notions and narrow quick thinking that could lead to a solution to the dilemma, but probably not the most effective and justified.’

30. Accessing Intuition Origins: ‘Being a part of society causes me to seek acceptance amongst my peers and people close to me. I have adopted what is viewed as acceptable and unacceptable by people around me to steer my life and these beliefs have been engraved internally.’ Purpose: ‘the majority of the time my decisions are determined by the effect they will have on me’ ‘the first instinct, is to take care of oneself’

32. Governing Intuition Regulating Emotions: ‘[You need to] step back, think about the next step, and ask the question: “why do I feel the way I do about this situation? I know something doesn’t feel quite right, but why?”[This] helps make decisions less about what you want, or what emotions may shout at you...and more about what would be best for most people’ Developing Interpersonally: ‘Without clearly sorting out personal values, understanding why they are important to oneself, and figuring out if they need adjustment, one acts based only on his or her experiences in society.’

33. Governing Intuition Expanding Perspectives: ‘It is very important to understand and acknowledge the point of view of others in moral deliberation. Often, individuals get caught up in their own personal opinion and develop a type of ‘tunnel vision’ where they have trouble seeing any outside perspective.’ Cognitive Enhancement: ‘But it is clear to me that I now take a longer look at any moral or ethical dilemmas. I am more inclined to take a look at the problem from all angles rather than just what I perceive to be right.’ ‘This semester we were faced with a multitude of cases. Each one of these has forced me to adapt my reasoning in some way to the particular situation. My reasoning, which was formerly driven by mostly quantitative values, is now mixed with both qualitative and ethical reasoning’

35. Implications Engaging and training students in a reflective process can allow them the space to explore their deepest intrapersonal selves Emotional processing of intuitions can act as a training ground and enhance students’ ability to more often access the intuition itself and the evolution of it Practice with reflection enhances one’s ability to question intuitions Practice with reflection increases the speed of accessibility Private reflection link requires training/ practice

36. Pedagogical Implications 1. Deliberate reflective activities remain critical 2. Utilizing best practices for enhancing cognitive complexity 3. Educating for emotional regulation 4. Deliberately engage the affect

37. Basic Methods for Guiding Reflection Interviews Questioning Discussions Logs & Journals Modeling

38. TO PROMOTE REFLECTIVE LEARNING/THINKING Provide enough wait-time for students to reflect when responding to inquiries. Provide emotionally supportive environments in the classroom encouraging reevaluation of conclusions. Provide prompt reviews of the learning situation, what is known, what is not yet known, and what has been learned. Provide authentic tasks involving ill-structured data to encourage reflective thinking during learning activities. Prompt students' reflection by asking questions that seek reasons and evidence.

39. TO PROMOTE REFLECTIVE LEARNING/THINKING Provide some explanations to guide students' thought processes during explorations. Provide a less-structured learning environment that prompts students to explore what they think is important. Provide social-learning environments such as those inherent in peer-group works and small group activities to allow students to see other points of view. Provide a reflective journal for students’ to write down their positions, give reasons to support what they think, show awareness of opposing positions and the weaknesses of their own positions. LinkLink

41. Past & Present Dewey (1933): “The function of reflective thought is, therefore, to transform a situation in which there is experienced uncertainty, doubt, conflict, disturbance of some sort, into a situation that is clear, coherent, settled, harmonious.” Seigle (2011): “Self observing profoundly changes the way our brain works. It activates the self-regulating neocortical regions, which give us an incredible amount of control over our feelings. Every time we do this, our rationality and our emotional resilience are strengthened. (2011): “reflection is the opportunity to realize that relationships are our life’s blood—this is what gives us resilience-- not only as individuals but as a community”

42. Questioning Intuition Through Reflective Engagement Chris Schmidt Villanova University christopher.schmidt@villanova.edu Slides available at www.cschmidtphd.comwww.cschmidtphd.com under “Research” tab