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UNIT 3: SOCIAL INEQUALITY
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SECTION 1: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Main Idea Many societies rank their members based on certain criteria, a process called social stratification.
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Social stratification is the division of society into categories, ranks, or classes. These divisions lead to social inequality—the unequal sharing of resources and social rewards. Stratification systems lie on a continuum of open to closed systems according to how easy or difficult it is to change statuses. Both ascribed and achieved statuses can be used to determine social standing. Types of Stratification Systems
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Caste Systems Closed stratification system Resources and social rewards distributed based on ascribed statuses Lifelong status determined by that of parents Prohibits exogamy, or marriage outside of caste; promotes endogamy, or marriage within caste Caste system in India has been challenged but still plays a major role Types of Stratification Systems
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Class Systems Class system more open than closed stratification system Resources and rewards distributed according to achieved statuses Some control over place in society Marx divided society into: –Bourgeoisie, or the owners of the means of production –Proletariat, or workers who sell their labor in exchange for wages Weber described three factors of class: –Property –Prestige –Power
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Social class is a grouping of people with similar levels of wealth, power, and prestige. Wealth –Wealth equals assets—value of everything the person owns— and income—money earned through salaries, investment returns, or other capital gains –In the United States, 1 percent of population controls one-third of wealth The Dimensions of Social Stratification
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Power –Power is the ability to control the behavior of others, with or without their consent –Can be based on force, a special skill or type of knowledge, particular social status, personal characteristics, or custom and tradition Prestige –Prestige is the respect, honor, recognition, or courtesy an individual receives –Occupation, education, family background, and area of residence are common factors in the United States. Socioeconomic status is a rating that combines social factors such as educational level, occupational prestige, and place of residence with the economic factor of income.
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Social Classes in the United States The upper class (capitalist class): Wealthiest people in a class system Make up about 1% of the U.S. population Possess most of the wealth of the country The ratio of CEO pay to factory worker pay rose from 42:1 in 1960 to as high as 531:1 in 2000, at the height of the stock market bubble. It was at 411:1 in 2005 and 344:1 in 2007, according to research by United for a Fair Economy. By way of comparison, the same ratio is about 25:1 in Europe.
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Social Classes in the United States The upper-middle class: Professionals and managers Make up about 14% of the U.S. population Benefited the most from college The middle class consists primarily of “ White collar ” workers Have a broad range of incomes Make up about 30% of the U.S. population
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Social Classes in the United States The working (lower-middle) class: “ Blue-collar ” or service industry workers Less likely to have college degrees Make up about 30% of the U.S. population
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Social Classes in the United States The lower class (the working poor): Many poor people who typically have lower levels of literacy than other classes Make up about 20% of the U.S. population
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SECTION 2: RACIAL AND ETHNIC INEQUALITY
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Minority, Racial, and Ethnic Groups █ Racial group: Group set apart from others because of obvious physical differences █ Ethnic group: Group set apart from others primarily because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns Module 31
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Minority Groups █ Minority group: Subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives –Properties of minority groups include: Unequal treatment Distinguishing cultural characteristics Involuntary membership Solidarity In-group marriage Module 31
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Race █ Research shows that race is not a meaningful way of differentiating people –Racial group refers to these minorities –Social construction of race: Society socially constructs which differences are important Module 31
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Race █ Recognition of Multiple Identities –In 1890, Du Bois predicted “the color line” foremost problem of 20 th century Immigration from Latin America shows fluid nature of race formation Biracial society being replaced by triracial –Stereotypes: Unreliable generalizations about all members of a group that do not recognize individual differences with the group Module 31
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Figure 31-1: Racial and Ethnic Groups in the United States, 1500-2100 (Projected) Module 31
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Prejudice █ Prejudice: Negative attitude toward an entire category of people –Ethnocentrism: Tendency to assume one’s culture and way of life are superior to others –Racism: Belief that one race is supreme and others are innately inferior –Hate crime: Criminal offense committed because of the offender’s bias against a race, religion, ethnic group, national origin, or sexual orientation Module 31
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Figure 31-2: Categorization of Reported Hate Crimes Module 31
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Color-Blind Racism █ Color-blind racism: Use of principle of race neutrality to define racially unequal status quo –Idea that society should be color- blind perpetuates racial inequality –Color line still in place, even if more people refuse to acknowledge its existence
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Discriminatory Behavior █ Discrimination: Denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups based on some type of arbitrary bias –Discrimination persists even for educated and qualified minority members Glass ceiling: invisible barrier blocking promotion of qualified individuals in work environment because of gender, race, or ethnicity Module 31
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The Privileges of the Dominant –Institutional discrimination: Denial of opportunities and equal rights that results from operations of a society –Affirmative action: Positive efforts to recruit minority members or women for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities
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Patterns of Intergroup Relations █ Racial and ethnic groups can relate to one another in a variety of ways, from friendships and intermarriages to hostility –Genocide: Deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation Expulsion of a people is another extreme means of acting out racial or ethnic prejudice Module 31
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Segregation █ Segregation: Physical separation of two groups of people in terms of residence –Generally, dominant group imposes pattern on a minority group Apartheid: Republic of South Africa severely restricted the movement of Blacks and non-Whites Module 31
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█ Racial profiling: Arbitrary action initiated by an authority based on race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than on person’s behavior Labeling Perspective –Practice often based on explicit stereotypes –As recently as 2006, 53% of Americans favored requiring all Arabs to undergo more intensive security checks before boarding airplanes Module 32
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SECTION 3: GENDER EQUALITY
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Gender Inequality
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ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT GENDER (Characteristics according to Fiske) Masculine Feminine active passive presence absence independent dependent organized scattered rational emotional logical illogical intellectualintuitive/imaginative
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The Social Construction of Gender So-called “natural differences” have been used to justify unequal opportunity in education, employment, politics, and more Women were once thought incapable of succeeding at college because of their biological makeup Our cultural suppositions are more rooted in our social constructions of what is natural than in biological limitations
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Sex and Gender Sex: biological differences between males and females Refers to who we are as males and females Gender: the social and cultural significance we attach to those presumed biological differences Refers to what we become as men and women, which occurs through socialization
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Gender and Inequality Gender stratification refers to the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women. Men and women differ in their access to privilege, prestige, and power. Traditionally, men have been first in line when it comes to who gets what, when, and how. Sex is a biologically determined characteristic, while gender is a socially constructed characteristic. All societies use anatomical differences to assign gender roles. Gender identities are the conceptions we have of ourselves as being male or female. Sexism operates at both an individual and an institutional level.
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Gender Roles in the United States Women’s Gender Roles –2004 Dove Campaign for Beauty found that only 2 percent of women around the world feel comfortable describing themselves as beautiful –TV consistently portrays women as young, thin, and beautiful –Children’s books have portrayed most female characters as helpless, passive, and incompetent
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Gender Roles in the United States Men’s Gender Roles –Stay-at-home fathers still rare –Must prove masculinity at work and in sports –Nonconformists often face criticism and humiliation –Multiple masculinities: idea that men learn and play a full range of gender roles
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The average female full-time worker earns about 76 cents for every dollar earned by a male full-time employee. Most of this results from the different kinds of jobs held by men vs. women. The greater responsibility for family and childcare tasks that our society has traditionally assigned to women is another factor explaining the earning differential. Discrimination is a third critical factor. Our society still defines high-paying professions as masculine; this helps to explain why an equal number of women and men begin most professional graduate programs, but women are less likely to complete their degrees. Female involvement in politics is also increasing, although very slowly at the highest levels. As technology blurs the distinction between combat and noncombat personnel, women are taking on more military assignments, though equality has not yet been achieved. Gender and Inequality
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Legal Rights gained by women Right to vote (1920; 19 th Amendment) Right to own passport (early 1930s) Equal right to divorce (gradually since 1940s) Reproductive rights (1973) Equal rights to university admission (1960s) Equal rights to all jobs and equal pay (1960s) Equal rights to participate in sports (1972)
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Occupational Structure and Earnings
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% Enrollments in Medical & Law Schools who are women, 1949-2007
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Some jobs remain highly gendered
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Educational Earnings Gap In 2001, women with a Doctorate earned 75% of what men with identical educational attainment earned
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Women elected officials, 1979-2009
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Domestic Division of Labor
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Time devoted by Mothers and Fathers to routine housecleaning mothersfathers
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Gender and Power Patriarchy is a form of social organization in which males dominate females. In general, women fare better in rich nations than in poor countries. Matriarchy is a form of social organization in which females dominate males. No matriarchal societies are known to exist or to have existed. Sexism is the belief that one sex is innately superior to the other. It underlies patriarchy and harms men, women, and the society as a whole. Patriarchy is not inevitable because modern technology has eliminated most of the historic justifications for it.
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Sociological Perspectives on Gender Stratification The major sociological perspectives offer interpretation of gender stratification that resemble and parallel their positions on class and racial or ethnic stratification. Functionalists suggest that families are organized along instrumental- expressive lines, with men specializing in instrumental tasks and women in expressive tasks. Conflict theorists contend that a sexual division of labor is a social vehicle devised by men to ensure themselves of privilege, prestige, and power in their relationships with women. Symbolic Interactionists argue that gender inequality persists because of the way we define men and women and their appropriate roles in society. Language helps perpetuate inequality. Feminists argue that women are disadvantaged because society is patriarchal.
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Feminism. Feminism is the advocacy of social equality for the sexes in opposition to patriarchy and sexism. Basic feminist ideas: Working to increase equality. Expanding human choice. Eliminating gender stratification. Ending sexual violence. Promoting sexual freedom. Types of feminism: Liberal feminism. Socialist feminism. Radical feminism. Opposition to feminism. Opposition is primarily directed at its socialist and radical forms, while support for liberal feminism is widespread. There is a trend toward greater gender equality.
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Gender Differences Across cultures Margaret Mead studied gender in three New Guinea societies: Among the Arapesh, both sexes would be described by U.S. citizens as feminine. Among the Mundugumor, both sexes would be described by U.S. citizens as masculine. Among the Tchambuli, gender roles reverse U.S. standards. Mead concluded that these case studies prove that gender does vary across cultures. Critics charge that Mead oversimplified.
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