2. PHARMACOLOGIC THERAPY  Standard First-Line Therapies Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors (ACEI) β Blockers Diuretics Digoxin  Second line Therapies Aldosterone Antagonists Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers (ARBs) Nitrates and Hydralazine

3. Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors (ACEI)  ACE inhibitors decrease angiotensin II and aldosterone, attenuating many of their deleterious effects, including reducing ventricular remodeling, myocardial fibrosis, myocyte apoptosis, cardiac hypertrophy, norepinephrine release, vasoconstriction, and sodium and water retention.  Hemodynamic effects observed with long-term therapy include significant increases in cardiac index, stroke work index, and stroke volume index, as well as significant reductions in left ventricular filling pressure, systemic vascular resistance (SVR), mean arterial pressure (MAP), and heart rate.  Significant improvements in clinical status, functional class, exercise tolerance, left ventricular size, and mortality are also well documented.

4. β Blockers  Beneficial effects β blockers may result from slowing or reversing the detrimental ventricular remodeling caused by sympathetic simulation, decreased myocyte death from catecholamine-induced necrosis or apoptosis, antiarrhythmic effects, and prevention of other effects of sympathetic nervous system activation.  These drugs consistently increase left ventricular ejection fraction, decrease ventricular mass, and reduce systolic and diastolic volumes.  There is overwhelming evidence that stable patients initiated on low doses of a β blocker with slow upward dose titration over several weeks derive significant benefits, including slowed disease progression and reduced hospitalizations and mortality.

5. Diuretics  Compensatory mechanisms in HF stimulate excessive sodium and water retention, often leading to systemic and pulmonary congestion.  Consequently, diuretic therapy is indicated for all patients with evidence of fluid retention. However, because they do not alter disease progression or prolong survival, they are not considered mandatory therapy for patients without fluid retention.

6. Digoxin  In patients with HF and supraventricular tachyarrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation, digoxin should be considered early in therapy to help control ventricular response rate.  For patients in normal sinus rhythm, digoxin does not improve survival, but its positive inotropic effects, symptom reduction, and its effect on symptom reduction and quality-of-life improvement are evident in patients with mild to severe HF. Therefore, it should be used together with other standard HF therapies (ACE inhibitors, β blockers, and diuretics) in patients with symptomatic HF.  Consideration should be given to adding it after instituting β- blocker therapy so that digoxin-associated bradycardia does not preclude β-blocker use.