2. What are the impacts on the USA - Illegal migration costs the USA millions of dollars for border patrols and prisons -Mexicans are seen as a drain on the USA economy -Migrant workers keep wages low which affects Americans -They cause problems in cities due cultural and racial issues -Mexican migrants benefit the US economy by working for low wages -Mexican culture has enriched the US border states with food, language and music -Remittances are sent home which is $$ not spent in the USA. What are the impacts on Mexico? -The Mexican countryside has a shortage of economically active people -Many men emigrate leaving a majority of women who have trouble finding marriage partners -Young people tend to migrate leaving the old and the very young -Legal and illegal immigrants together send some $6 billion remittances a year back to Mexico, which strengthens their economy -Certain villages such as Santa Ines have lost 2/3 of its inhabitants The border is guarded by more than twenty thousand border patrol agents, more than any time in its history. They only control around 700 miles of the 1954 mile border. The US Government spends over $3.7 billion each year defending the USA- Mexico Border. -It is the most frequently crossed international border in the world, with approximately three hundred fifty million (350,000,000) crossings per year.

3. Why was Chinas population controlled? China had to control its population as the country was increasing and increasing. In the 1950s, China wanted to improve its wealth; the President thought the country had too many people to increase its wealth. -There were more people in China than the combined population of Europe, the Americas and Japan. -The population was creeping quickly to 1 Billion people. Reasons why China thought it wouldn’t become rich with a big population -Need more food which means they couldn’t sell a lot to other countries - The government would have to spend a lot of money on health care and education. - Wouldn’t be enough jobs for everyone so the government would have to pay benefits The One child Policy In 1979 the Chinese government introduced the One Child Policy. This meant each couple could only have one child. If couples had more than one child they would have to pay fines or they would force the mother to have an abortion. You had to be married and over 25years to have children. If couples had one child they would get free healthcare, education and money. Married couples in the countryside were allowed 2 children as the government saw that children were needed to help with farming. As families were only allowed one child, most wanted a boy to keep on the family name, so if women found out they were having a girl they would adopt or abort the baby. This now has created a large population of males and not enough females. In 2000, it was reported that 90% of foetuses aborted in China were female. Today it is thought that men outnumber women by more than 60 million. Has it worked? The birth rate in China has fallen since 1979, and the rate of population growth is now 0.7%. China's one-child policy has been somewhat relaxed in recent years. Couples can now apply to have a second child if their first child is a girl, or if both parents are themselves only- children. While China's population is now rising more slowly, it still has a very large total population (1.3 billion in 2008).

4. Chinese cities will face an influx of another 243 million migrants by 2025, taking the urban population up to nearly 1 billion people Pull factors influencing migration of people from rural areas to large cities are -Better employment -better education, -business opportunities - higher standard of living The government are increasing internal migration by land-sale policies, infrastructure investment and the incentives offered to local government officials Negatives -Traffic -Pollution -Overcrowding - Shortage of jobs - Pressure on services -Lack of housing -270 cities have no water plant treatment so sewage is dumped straight into the river. Between 1990 and 2006 the percentage of people living in urban areas in China increased from 26% to 44%. In rural (villages) areas there are push factors. Few jobs are available, as machinery as took over. 150 million rural people unemployed. Lower wages and therefore greater poverty – 26 million live in poverty. Shortage of services such as schools (1.1 million children don’t go to primary school) and health facilities Urban area positives include- the economy grows. More workers and an increase in demand for services –this increases trade and industry. In rural areas positives include 130 million have left and send money home. This increases income for some households. Also less pressure on the land. Negatives include it is usually young people who migrate, leaving an ageing population. Half of Chinese people over 60 live without any younger relative to look after them. The Chinese government managed urbanisation by building water supply plants, improving education and transport. Electricity has improved in cities. Money has also been spent on improving housing. They have tried to improve rural areas by setting up pension schemes, investing in business, land reforms and trying to reduce poverty.

5. Migrants moving from Poland to the UK are classed as economic migrants. Between 2004 and 2007 half a million poles arrived Push factors from Poland include -high unemployment of 19%. -Low wages of £8000 -housing shortages with only 300 houses available for every 1000 people -Lack of higher education -Low standard of living The UK has pull factors such as -higher wages of £20,000 - low unemployment of 4%. -Higher standard of living -Higher education opportunities -Already a multicultural society - Part of the EU so can enter easily and gain a working visa If a country is part of the EU, you can move freely between every country Impacts to Poland (origin country) -(+) Money is sent back to Poland, this is called remittances, this strengthens their economy (£1bil) - (-) Skilled workers leaving Poland, this is called the Brain drain - (-) Underpopulation, an ageing population in Poland. (82% aged 18-34 migrant from Poland) - (+) Most migrants are temporarily leave Poland, so come back with better skills and money Impacts to the UK (host country) -(+) Polish migrants contributed £1.9 billion in taxes. -(+) provide skilled workers like plumbers, will do unpleasant jobs like cleaning. - (+) Creates multicultural society - (-) Puts pressure on public services (health, education) - (-) creates tension in the community (e.g they take our jobs) -(-) overcrowding The UK government attempts to manage immigration. Polish workers have to register under the worker registration scheme. For new EU countries like Bulgaria the government tightened their control and now migrants have to get permission from the home office to work here and it is only granted for certain jobs – where there is a shortage. Other counties manage migration through a point based system based on education, age, language ability etc e.g. Australia. The UK is looking at this. We also have limits and targets set and we control illegal immigration though deportation – here illegal migrants are arrested, jailed and forced to return home.

6. Many people plan to spend their retirement in a different area. The south- west counties of Dorset, Devon and Cornwall are popular The perceived attractions include: -a slower pace of life -the scenery -the community -away from the busy larger cities -lower crime rates Popular areas for retirement migrants have problems as a result of this: -pressure on health care -demand for social services -an increase in house prices -a lack of suitable housing There are also advantages: there is an increased demand for local services - so the local shop and pubs have more custom jobs in social care and health care are available a growth of age related services, such as chiropodists, social groups and bingo younger retired people spend "the grey pound", spending money through travel and recreation Local councils have to spend a large proportion of their budget on elderly care whether social services or hospital care

7. Since the 1980s, much of the retail development in the UK has been in the form of out- of-town developments as land is cheaper, more land is available in the countryside, workers are nearby and good transport links. Bluewater, known as Europe's largest retail and leisure complex, opened in 1999, it was built on a brownfield site. It used to be a chalk quarry. It has excellent access to the market (consumers) and for supply, being just outside the M25 in the area of Dartford. It has a good catchment area, with over 11 million people within an hours drive. Economic impacts -Provides jobs in the local -Gives local income to strengthens the economy through consumers and local council BUT CBD is struggling as most people go to OOT centre rather than town centre, so urban decay. Trade in the local CBDs have decreased by over 50%

8. In 2005 London was awarded the 2012 Olympics and decided to use the opportunity to improve Newham. Newham was London’s youngest and most diverse borough but residents were likely to die younger, be affected by crime, be less qualified, earn less and live in overcrowded homes than anywhere else in London. A lot of the land was derelict buildings and contaminated land. The River Lea which flowed through it was polluted and had no fish in.

9. In 1981 the London's Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was set up to improve the economic, social and environmental problems that had developed in the area that was once one of the world's busiest ports.. The area became on the first Enterprise Zones in 1981. The land was made rate free for ten years. Why did the London Docks go into decline? 1. An increase in ship size meant they found it difficult to come down the river as far as the Isle of Dogs where the river wasn't as deep. (the position of the docks moved further downstream to Tilbury); 2. Containerisation meant few dockers were needed with large cranes used to lift containers from ships; 3. The decline of portside industries and manufacturing Environmental Regeneration - network of pedestrian and cycle routes - creation of pedestrian bridges - creation of new open spaces (150ha) - Water based Ecology Park and London's first bird sanctuary at East India Dock Basin - one of 17 conservation areas set up - planting of 200,000 trees; - the area has now received many awards for architecture, conservation and landscaping -Unemployment had fallen & business increased - transport revolution - opening of the Docklands Light Railway in 1987 - now carrying 35,000 passengers a week; - £7.7 billion in private sector investment -Building of the City Airport -- attraction of financial and high-tech firms, - TV studios and newspapers such as The Guardian now have offices in the prestigious Canary Wharf business complex. -£10 million spent homes - a total of 22,000 new homes built -of old warehouses to new homes - New shopping centre built - refurbishment of shopping parades - - many restaurants, pubs and cafes built - Docklands Sailing and Watersports Centre - £100 million spent on health, education, job training etc Success -Increase in trade -Large TNCs came -Better transport -Sustainable building (Brownfield sites) -Conservation Criticisms -Didn’t benefit the original residents, couldn’t afford new houses -No community -High skilled jobs not for old dockers

10. Caatinga is one of the two poorest regions of Brazil. It is an agricultural area but due to increasing desertification this is becoming more and more difficult. Pull factors –Bright lights, the idea that there are better opportunities -Better employment -better education, - business opportunities -higher standard of living Negatives for Sao Paulo Increasing population in Sao Paulo can’t fit into the available housing and so favelas (shanty towns) spring up. 20% of people in Sao Paulo live in favelas like Paraisopolis. There is limited fresh water and electricity; high crime; low health and education. The favelas are unsafe and susceptible to flood, landslide and fire 1980 to 2011 Brazils urban population increased from 65% to 85% Push factors. Few jobs outside of farming Poor education (the lowest levels in Brazil) Low life expectancy Low life expectancy and education are due to a shortage of services such as schools and health facilities Positives for Sao Paulo More workers so the economy grows An increased demand for services and goods so more work and trade for urban industry. Effects on Caatinga Rural areas are left without the young and healthy. This means the manual work on the farm has to be done by elderly or very young. When the young are forced to work this takes them out of education making the situation worse for the future. The young and elderly are not as fit and so can’t produce as many crops which leads to a decline in wealth and food. This results in poorer health and increased migration to Sao Paulo. Young men and women are leaving rural Caatinga for a better quality of life in Sao Paulo. Their plan is to send money back to their families in rural areas. This sometimes fails as they struggle to earn enough money in Sao Paulo and find that they are forced to live in favelas.

11. People move for a better QUALITY OF LIFE The perceived attractions include: -a slower pace of life -the scenery -the community -away from busy larger cities -lower crime rates -the peaceful Peak District Popular areas for retirement migrants have problems as a result of this: -pressure on health care -demand for social services -an increase in house prices -a lack of suitable housing There are also advantages: There is an increased demand for local services - so The local shop and pubs have more custom jobs in social care and health care are available A growth of age related services, such as chiropodists, social groups and bingo for elderly. Increased public transport particularly at rush hour Local councils have to spend a large proportion of their budget on elderly care whether social services or hospital care The migration to Hathersage causes housing problems. There are rules about new building projects so barns and outbuildings are converted for residential use. Increased demand for housing pushes up prices which means local people (who often work in farming or tourism in the area), can’t afford to live there. People choose Hathersage because 1.It has bus and train services into Sheffield and Manchester 2.It is just 12 miles from the centre of Sheffield on the A625 3.It is a centre for outdoor activities like walking, climbing and cycling 4.It has a number of cafes and pubs for socialising. 5.It has a very popular swimming pool

13. The cyclone happened on 2nd May 2008 at the Irrawaddy delta in Burma The cost of the damage was $10 billion. The primary impacts included -140,000 were killed -450,000 homes -1700 schools were destroyed. -200,000 farm animals were killed -40% of food stores were destroyed. -Rice fields were flooded on the Irrawaddy Delta The secondary impacts were that -up to 3 million were made homeless -millions lost their livelihoods. -Over 70% of households didn’t have access to clean water and this caused diseases. -There was a shortage of food. -1000’s of temples were destroyed The Government failed to warn its people. People were not evacuated in time As Burma is a poor country it could not afford to plan, predict and prepare like the USA. The emergency services were ill prepared, had little training or equipment and lacked numbers. The government refused to accept foreign aid at first as they said they could cope. Its government is a military dictator and they do not like outsiders! Aid workers were eventually allowed in, though this was three weeks after the cyclone. The impacts were also greater in Burma than the USA because many in Burma depend on farming (crops and livestock) and much of this was totally destroyed Additionally, they do not have flood defences and their houses are poor quality and easily destroyed. Strong winds up to 135mph Storm surge of 7.6m Heavy rainfall http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/A-level/AQA/Year%2013/Weather%20and%20climate/Hurricanes/Cyclone_Nargis.htm

14. Tropical storms have strong winds and torrential rain. They are circular in shape and can be hundreds of km wide. They form over tropical seas (27oC or higher). Warm moist air rises and condenses. This releases energy which makes it grow really powerful. They lose strength as they move over land because their energy source (warm water) is cut off. Hurricane Katrina hit the South East USA on 29th August 2005 and cost a staggering $300 billion. The primary impacts included 1800 were killed and 300,000 homes were destroyed. 3 million people were left without electricity and bridges including the I- 10 collapsed. Coastal habitats were also damaged. The secondary impacts were tens of thousands were made homeless and 230,000 jobs were lost from business that were damaged and destroyed. Water supplies were polluted with sewage, chemicals and dead bodies. The USA has a sophisticated monitoring system to predict if hurricanes will hit (satellites can track them). This means people can be evacuated. 80% were evacuated before the storm hit, reducing the death toll. Mississippi and Louisiana declared states of emergency and stockpiled supplies (food and water). The coastguard, police, fire services and army rescued over 50,000 people and they had access to equipment such as helicopters. Although the response was better than in Burma the USA government received much criticism. Some homeless families ended up in sports stadia where conditions were intolerable and fighting etc broke out as tensions rose. There were accusations that as it was ‘black poor people mostly affected’ the government didn’t care. Looting was commonplace. Finally, flood defences that were supposed to protect New Orleans failed and this actually increased the damage as flood water became trapped Katrina was a category 4 storm. Storm surges reached over 6 metres in height. New Orleans was one of the worst affected areas because it lies below sea level and is protected by levees. People sought refuge in the Superdome stadium. Conditions were unhygienic, and there was a shortage of food and water. Looting was commonplace throughout the city. Tension was high and many felt vulnerable and unsafe.

15. The January 1994 Northridge Earthquake struck hard: the first major earthquake to occur directly beneath a highly urbanized area in California. Near the epicenter in the San Fernando Valley, well-engineered buildings withstood violent shaking without structural damage Northridge was fairly prepared for earthquakes through education, rescue efforts and strong buildings. The earthquake happened on a deep fault in the San Fernado Valley Primary effects -57 people killed -9000 injured -Thousands of buildings damaged -Transport links damaged (roads) Yet due to the earthquake happening early in the morning it reduced the deaths Secondary effects -Landslides -Powerlines and waterlines damaged from the debris -Extensive fires 15,000 aftershocks occurred, these can trigger the collapse of weak buildings Wooden buildings were the buildings that generally collapsed Landslides were triggered in mountainous areas, these block roads and damaged homes Fires broke out from the leaking gas pipes, areas were completely destroyed by the fires Liquefaction occurred in some areas It was declared a federal disaster, so 100s of workers from FEMA helped the community recover Millions were given to the 600,000 people that applied for financial assistance. The USGS monitor the movement yet can not predict, so preparation is key!

16. The country is located on a conservative plate boundary between the Caribbean Plate and the North American Plate. 3 Million people live in Port au Prince with the majority living in slum conditions after rapid urbanisation. The poorest country in the western hemisphere. GDP is 143/227. 66% of the population of Haiti earn less than £1 a day with 56% of the population classed as “extremely poor” In early January 2010 the EU released €3 m in emergency funding.EU The European Council and its member nations later announced more than €429 million in aid.European Council The governments of the United States, Israel,the Dominican Republic, Canada, Brazil, Italy and Cuba3 sent over 1,000 military and disaster relief personnel each, with the United States being by far the largest single contributor to the relief efforts. - 12th January 2010 an earthquake measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale struck Haiti. -The focus was 13km underground -The epicentre was 25km from the capital Port-au-Prince -Haiti suffered a huge number of serious aftershocks. -The number of people in relief camps of tents since the quake was 1.6 million -In July 2010, CNN returned to Port- au-Prince and reported, "It looks like the quake just happened yesterday“.CNN -A January 2012 Oxfam report said that a half a million Haitians remained homelessOxfam -Only about 20% of aid has been spent by the Haiti government as they have no resources.

17. Australia had particularly dry weather throughout the early 2002 but by 2006-6 the situation (particularly in East Australia) was devastating Australia is one of the most arid (dry) countries on earth so even a small drop in rainfall can cause problems. Causes Relief Rain The Great Dividing Rain on Australia's East coast creates rain to the East of the mountains but creates a “rain shadow” on the inland side. El Nino The natural cycling of warm ocean currents between Australia and South America leads to drier conditions in Australia. This was taking place in 2005 and 2006. Over irrigation In some cases farmers were blamed for using water in an unsustainable way and not using more modern, sparing methods like drip tip irrigation. Effects Animals die of thirst and starvation. Major water restrictions are enforced. Dry conditions lead to bush fires. Crops fail so farmers and exporters loose income. Water bills increased by 20% 13 of the 19 farms in the region have been closed Food is imported and prices rise. Solutions A $10 billion national water management plan in 2007. Use of smart meters and technology to reduce water consumption Drought resistant crops are being introduced Modernising the irrigation routes to reduce leakage and waste Accurate planting of seeds to ensure they go into “wetter” areas

18. Montserrat is on a destructive boundary. The North and South American plates are being subducted below the Caribbean plate. The volcano is a composite volcano-it can erupt suddenly and violently 19 died and 100+ were injured 7 villages were destroyed Airport and main ports as well as countless roads destroyed Sewage systems were blocked/damaged Lots of homes and businesses were destroyed Mountain chicken frog numbers are now dangerously low as their habitats have been damaged Impacts South of the island is still an exclusion zone. The North's infrastructure and services are being developed. Montserrat’s population fell from 12,000 in 1995 to 1500 in 2001. Evacuation lead to a skills shortage The eruption damaged the tourist industry’s infrastructure (worth £12million per year) but the active volcano has lead to an increase in tourists visiting. The damage to the islands sea life is being dealt with using “reef balls” to encourage the growth of new corals House rents increased by 0% due to the housing shortage The UK gave money to help rebuild and to help establish the Montserrat Volcano Observatory to monitor Soufriere hills The eruptions were pyroclastic flows and ash. The capital city (Plymouth) has been buried and abandoned.

19. Desertification – the turning of land, often through physical processes and human mismanagement, into desert. A severe threat to millions in the Sahel region of Africa. In the Sahel, a drought is declared when there’s below average rainfall for 2 years. The Sahel has actually suffered drought for most of the last 30 years. Ethiopia is in the east Sahel Drought is different from other hazards unlike volcanoes and tropical storms it never kills people directly 88% of the population lives in rural areas and is dependent on farming. Causes 77% of trees have been cut down since 1985 leading to reduced evapotranspiration and increased soil erosion Over grazing by animals kills the plants that bound the topsoil together Increased ocean temperature can reduce rainfall and unusual winds can lead to rain not moving northwards. Effects Crop failure which leads to increased risk of starvation and famine, people are then less able to work. River Awash was polluted by dead animals leading to fears of cholera. 6 million people needed food aid to meet the country’s shortfall. Winds remove topsoil leaving poor farmland 46% of cattle died Millions of people starve and there is a 15% rise in malnourishment. Solutions Rainwater harvesting Planting trees (afforestation) Demi lunes Drought resistant crops R4 resiliance (farmer insurance)

20. The Sahel region of Africa has been suffering from drought on a regular basis since the early 1980s. The area naturally experiences alternating wet and dry seasons. The result is crop failure, soil erosion, famine and hunger: people are then less able to work when their need is greatest. It becomes a vicious circle and can result in many deaths, especially among infants and the elderly. In Niger in 2004, the situation was made worse when a plague of locusts consumed any remaining crops. In these cases, people rely on food aid from the international community. Desertification – the turning of land, often through physical processes and human mismanagement, into desert. A severe threat to millions in the Sahel region of Africa. In the Sahel, a drought is declared when there’s below average rainfall for 2 years. The Sahel has actually suffered drought for most of the last 30 years. Drought is different from other hazards unlike floods and tropical storms it never kills people directly The Eden project is a charity that plants trees in the area to give food to the local people

21. The volcano erupted fine grained ash which can enter airplane engines and even turn to a glassy substance because of the heat of the jet engine. The ash erupted from the volcano blocked rivers even a year later and covered farmland and houses causing a major clean up. Farmers had to move their livestock inside. The glacier on top of the volcano melted in the eruption. This caused a major flood on the 14th of April, destroyed part of Iceland’s road network (Route 1)and authorities evacuated 700 people Iceland is on a hot spot and is on the Mid Atlantic Ridge. The border between the North American and Eurasian plates. This means it has a lot of shield volcanoes. These are usually gentle and don’t cause drama. Ash cloud from second eruption thrown up 5 miles into the atmosphere. Airspace in Europe was closed, 1,000 flights a day were cancelled for 6 days. Overall 95,000 flights were cancelled. This cost airlines $200 million a day. 1.87 million barrels of oil were saved by the drop in flights. London lost £102 million of tourist income. Schools struggled after the Easter break as so many staff were stranded abroad. Satellite image April 15 tth 2010 Scotland Iceland Britain had anticyclonic weather during the eruption, this meant there weren’t winds to disperse the ash so it stayed there. Computer modelling has been developed so that in the future ash clouds can be modelled accurately and flights can be diverted not cancelled Jobs have been created in tourism. These are particularly good for seasonal workers e.g. students

22. Mt St Helens was dormant for a long time but small quakes from 1980 suggested that the magma was moving. On March the 18th a quake in the volcano of 4.2 on the Richter scale signalled the volcanoes return to activity. A large “bulge” on the side of the volcano signified a build up of magma. On May 18 at 8:32 a.m., a magnitude 5.1 earthquake centred directly below the north slope triggered that part of the mountain to slide this was on of the largest landslides in history, it moved at around 110 mph and it covered about 24 square miles Mount St Helens is on the plate boundary between the Juan de Fuca plate and North American plate. When it erupted it permanently changed the surrounding landscape. 200 homes, 47 bridges, 15 miles of railways and 185 miles of highway were destroyed. U.S. President Jimmy Carter surveyed the damage and stated it looked more desolate than a moonscape. *Large number of wildlife were killed by the blast and the volcanic ash with nothing surviving in the blast zone * flooding resulting from blocked rivers washed away road and rail bridges * crops were ruined and livelihoods of loggers were devastated with large areas of trees being flattened like matchsticks

23. The worst-affected was the town of Armero. It was virtually destroyed - buried by mud and rubble swept down on to it. The fatal eruption happened during the night when most of the town's 27,000 residents were in bed. An evacuation was ordered but abandoned when the volcano went quiet. The Colombian government has appealed to the United Nations for help. However, rescue efforts are being hampered by fallen bridges and impassable roads. -Pumice fragments and ash from side of vent. -Lava erupted from summit crater accompanied by heavy rainfall. -Hot ash and rocks transported by pyroclastic flows of clouds of gas and ash. -Rapid snow melting causing floods to sweep loose debris and soil to create hot lahars down the mountain.

25. Upper Course -Source high in the Pennines (893m above sea level) -High run off as steep V shaped valleys of impermeable rock -High rainfall – good water supply -Many tributaries -Famous high fall waterfall – tallest in England 21 metres high -Gorges, rapids and potholes at Low force Middle Course - Clear widening and meandering -Meanders cut off in the 19 th century -Sides become less steep -Lateral erosion Lower Course -Very urbanised and large populations. Eg Yarn -Important wildlife seals & migratory birds also SSSI -Ox bow lakes -Large oil, gas and petrochemical industries (as flat land) -Natural Levees formed due to silt build up -Mouth is in the North sea -Wide Mudflat estuary (tidal) -Huge water sports complex Tees Barrage River Management -Long history of flash flooding -Cow green reservoir, controls water supply for industries along the river -Straighten the river for easier navigation during the industrial revolution Flood protection schemes in Yarn 85 miles in length It drains an area of 710 square miles

26. Uses The waters of the Niagara River are used by 100,000+ Canadians and US citizens for a range of purposes such as: drinking, boating, fishing, swimming, bird watching, Industrial cooling, and hydroelectricity. The Energy Plant generates 4.4 GW of energy and is contracted to keep the falls flowing and clean. Tourism 28 million tourists visit the area each year to see the falls and experience the Maid of the Mist boat trip, the “journey behind the falls” tour, the speed boat up the gorge as well as take in the tourist sites that have been built next to the falls themselves. Tourism has lead to the falls being heavily developed with a lot of hotels, traffic congestion and litter. Formation Niagara Falls is on the 58km long Niagara River which links Lakes Eerie and Ontario. At Niagara Fall the river flows over a hard Lockport Dolomite which lies on top of soft sands and shale. As it flows it erodes the shale (mainly through abrasion and hydraulic action) leaving an overhang of dolomite. This is unsupported and as the erosion continues the overhang eventually collapses. At Niagara this is a drop of 50m. Over time the falls retreat up the river creating a gorge. The Niagara Gorge is 11km long. 2 million litres of water go over the horseshoe falls every second. The falls are retreating at a rate of 2m per year

27. Reasons for the flooding PHYSICAL -A very wet August (2 times average rain) SO the ground was already saturated -Impermeable rocks & thin soils -Steep slopes – rapid runoff -Confluence of Rivers Valency & Jordan is just above the village -A very high tide – made it difficult for water to flow out to sea HUMAN -Bridges were low so acted a a dam - debris such as tree trunks caught on them water piled up until it burst through in a great wave -Many buildings & roads were positioned close to the river so more property damage Primary Impacts -50+ cars, and caravans were swept out to sea -a wall of water swept through the village destroying everything in its path -6 buildings were swept away -Many other houses, shops etc were flooded, with mud + sewage as well as water; possessions also ruined -Roads under 2.75m of water -No deaths, few serious injuries Secondary Impacts -90% of economy dependent on tourism > lost money >20 accommodation providers & tourist attractions/shops forced to shut -Insurance companies pay out £20 million New Management & defence -£4.6m scheme includes: raise car park to safer level; move & raise bridge; widen & lower the river bed to increase the amount of water it can hold -Removing of dead vegetation to stop blocking of the river -‘At risk’ properties – encouraged to use more flood resistant material, raise height of electrical wiring etc -Environment Agency – flood warning system + information -Council runs special advice days, encouraging people to have an emergency evacuation pack & to take out insurance. Council has an emergency action plan. Since 2004 – flooding again, still damage but not as damaging as this event

28. Characteristics of Bangladesh -Lays mainly on floodplains, so flat land Most of the land lies 6metres below sea -3 main rivers- The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna. -Monsoon season evey year – high concentrated rainfall in a few months (June to September). -1,800mm and 2,600mm rain a year. -Poverty is a huge issue in Bangladesh-low literacy rate -Flooding occurs naturally in Bangladesh -Snow from the Himalayas melts each year and increase river discharge -Sediment blocks up the river and causes flooding -Deforestation in the forest increases run off and reduces lag time -Cyclones occur in the Bay of Benegal and causes coastal flooding -Densely populated areas meaning increase in deaths Social impacts -36 million people were made homeless -People died as a result of disease because they had no access to clean water. -Impacted on rural farmers and urban slum dwellers the most. -Over 800 died with many more from disease Economic impacts -serious damage to infrastructure – roads, bridges, embankments, railway lines, irrigation systems -All domestic and internal flights had to be suspended during July -Value of damage was assessed as being in region of $2.2 billion of 4% of total GDP for 2004 Environmental impacts During July and August approximately 38% of the total land area was flooded including 800,000 ha of agricultural land and Dhaka Floods caused river bank erosion especially on embankment areas close to the main channels, soil erosion, water-logging, water contamination Response and management -Reliance on Ngo support – financial and emergency supplies –UN disaster management support -Self help schemes promoted -local community early warning system implemented, plus shelters -Increasing use of levees to protect field and villages -Increasing monitoring to reduce the impact as happens every year. -encourage farmers to build homes on stilts.

29. Nature conservation -Studland and Brownsea island all have rare species and plant life. See Studland case study for examples. Brownsea, like Studland is owned by the national trust. Particularly important for bird life and red squirrels. -Green Island is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and Special Protection Area (SPA) -Studland and Brownsea Island are all protected by various organisations due to their environmental significance. Transport -Poole harbour is the second largest natural harbour in the World. -There are commercial trips within the harbour as well as an international ferry terminal to Cherbourg, Brittany and the Channel Islands (Jersey, Guernsey) -Run by Condor and Brittany ferries Residential -Sandbanks and Hamworthy (12,000) are the most built up areas of Poole Bay. -With a small population in Studland and Brownsea Island -Sandbanks is famous for having the 4 th most expensive land value in the World. Industry -Sunseeker is the largest company in Poole Harbour, with the production of the large luxury boats. There are 7 shipyards, employs over 2,500 locals. - Other boat repairs, dredging and cargo industries operate in the area. Energy -Furzey Island is home to the well hidden oil well and gathering station for Wytch Farm - Britain's largest onshore oil development. Oil and gas are exported, was previously BP now Perenco. -There is a proposal to build an off-shore wind farm just outside of Poole Bay, yet this has been meet with much hostility. Recreational -A wide range of sporting activities due to the calm bay within the Harbour and the actual coast. -Windsurfing is the most popular watersport., alongside sailing. -The RNLI offer lifeguarding service on the main beaches.

30. Old Management (all 40 years old) -Revetments – now damaged (from a storm) and not effective -Groynes were placed to stop the rate of erosion, however they are not helping enough. -Rock Armour – now little effectiveness Increasing climate change and sea level rise are impacting and increasing erosion Conflict from managed retreat -To repair revetment cost £5 million, not cost effective -Farmers lose land and livelihood -Insurance companies won’t pay out -Increasing protest from locals to central government but g’ment has said no. -Defences would cost more than the land and homes are worth. -Locals want compensation for the lack of management and for their homes collapsing into the sea. - The historical lighthouse has had to be moved further back from the edge of the cliff. -local campaign ‘buy a rock for Happisburgh’ to raise money for private defences. -A small village with a pub, tea shop, lighthouse, church and homes -850 population -Mainly farmland -No main roads -Historic records indicate that over 250 m of land were lost between 1600 and 1850. -The cliffs are soft clay, so erode very quickly. Weathering increases the erosion rate. The location of Happisburgh causes increasing problems with powerful waves from the North sea, which creates landslides from eroding the base of the cliff. By 2055, loss of 20 more properties Loss of caravan park and farmland

31. Human Use -wide, sandy beach attracts millions of tourists, can be 25,000 each day -Car parks, café, shops -Sailing jetty -Beach huts -Education centre -Horse riding and water sports. -Naturist area -Locals – small village with few amenities -Ferry from Sandbanks Issues -Litter -Pollutions from cars, water and noise -Fire hazards from BBQs and cigarette butts -Major fire in 2009 that left utter devastation to the ecosystem -Conflict between users those that want to use for more activities and environmentalists. In addition locals become inundated during the Summer months. -The nature reserve is an area of sand dunes. These are dynamic, but often unstable and vulnerable environments. home to rare species of plants and birds - Identified as a National Nature Reserve (NNR) and Site of special scientific interest (SSSI) -Owned by The National Trust -In 2001 Studland had a population of 480, the lowest in 50 years. -Sheltered from wind so sand is deposited and trapped to create dunes, 5km of beach -Forested area, Studland heath, marsh and sand dunes. -Little sea is the lake located within the heath and forested area. Management -Litter -Planting of marram grass to stabilise the dunes, plus fencing -Boardwalks have been created to reduce trampling -Limited car parks to reduce the damage to the beach -Fire beaters placed throughout the area to reduce damage from fire -Litter and recycling bins -Several info boards to educate -Also gabions and rock armour to protect from wave erosion Rare species Bee wolf Purbeck Mason wasp Dragonflty Smooth snake Adders Sand lizards Dartford Warblers Seahorse

33. WaterAid is an international NGO (non-governmental organisation /charity) that focuses on the provision of safe domestic water, sanitation and hygiene education to the world's poorest people.. WaterAid's vision is of a world where everyone has access to safe domestic water and effective sanitation. In Mali, current national figures indicate that only 50% of the people have access to clean drinking water and only 4% of the population have access to adequate sanitation facilities (toilets). Women spend much of their time searching for water. Children also spend precious school hours looking for water at the expense of their education Poor sanitation means bad health. Bacteria, viruses and parasites found in human waste are responsible for the transmission of cholera, typhoid and other infectious diseases that kill millions of people each year. The problem is huge in both urban and rural areas Mali’s environment is harsh and deteriorating. Rainfall levels are already low and falling further. In Mali, the water industry is privatised but often fails to the provide water to rural and urban aeas. Wateraid is first targeting Slums in Mali’s capital, it wants to show the government that projects in slums are easy to set up and sustainable. Wateraid employs local people, who they are training up to maintain the system and raise money to keep it running. Then invest in the community – THIS IS SUSTAINABLE Health has now improved include reducing the deaths from diarrhoea – 65% improvement Education is now improving, money is being invested into the infrastructure

34. Coca–Cola has bottling plants around the world including 56 in India. It locates its bottling plants to try to get 1.Cheap labour costs 2.Cheap cost of raw materials (water) 3.Close to its consumers / markets Coca Cola makes syrup. This is sent around the world and diluted before being sold. This reduces transport costs. It takes 2.9L of water to make 1L of Coca Cola so the cost of water is a big factor when Coca Cola sets up a bottling plant. $46 billion revenue in 2014 Coca Cola India employs 25,000 people Rajasthan has 595mm rain annually Coca Cola Kaladera have 4x100m wells Drop in groundwater for villagers so they can’t irrigate their crops. This means there is smaller harvest and less grazing land for cattle. All of this leads to lower income 70% of Indians depend on farming for income. The bottling plant in Kaladera opened in 1999. At that time groundwater was 12m deep. By 2010 it had dropped to 38m Coca Cola are providing bottled water to villages without access to safe water, this is good for drinking and cooking but less useful for farming. Farmers in Kaladera use pesticides. These soak into the ground and groundwater. As groundwater drops, the pesticides become more concentrated. Many wells are now unsafe to drink from so villagers walk miles to collect water from other villages. This reduces time for work and education affecting their income. Coca Cola are teaching farmers methods of agriculture which use less water e.g. drip tip irrigation. This reduces water use by farmers at the same time as increasing income. It doesn’t stop coca Cola exploiting India’s water laws.

35. The corridor is home to companies such as Hewlett Packard and Sony who are involved in research and development (quaternary industry) and have links with universities who provide well- qualified graduates. The M4 corridor (Heathrow airport in the east to Bath and Bristol in the west). Few raw materials are used and therefore transport costs are low, making the industries 'footloose‘ (not tied to a particular location) Grows the economy of the local towns, where employers live. Professional workers selected from Uni’s nearby, eg. Oxford/Cambridge Also known as the ‘Sunrise Strip’ Generally attractive environment, trees, lakes, modern buildings. Pleasant to work and live in! Companies that are on the M4 corridor, 02 in Slough, Microsoft, INg direct and Ericsson are in Reading. Vodafone in Newbury and Orange in Bristol. It creates billions of pounds to the UK economy.

36. The Pearl Delta is in the Republic of China in the low-lying area surrounding the Pearl River estuary where the Pearl River flows into the South China Sea. It is one of the most densely urbanised regions in the world and one of the main hubs of China's economic growth. The Pearl River Delta is notoriously polluted, with sewage and industrial waste. (Treatment facilities are failing to keep up with the growing population). Much of the area is frequently covered with a brown smog. This has a strong effect on the pollution levels in the delta. In 2007, the World Bank approved a $96 million loan to the Chinese government to reduce water pollution in the Pearl River Delta. 7.1 billion was spent on the river by mid 2010 to clean up the river's sewage problems. The city will build about 30 water treatment plants, which will treat 2.25 million tonnes of water per day. The program hopes to cut down the amount of sewage in the area by 85%, In October 2009, Greenpeace released a report, "Poisoning the Pearl River" that detailed the results of a study it conducted. All samples they took contained hazardous properties including heavy metals such as beryllium, copper and manganese. These substances are associated with a long list of health problems such as cancer, endocrine disruption, renal failure and damage to the nervous system as well being known to harm the environment. The Pearl River Delta has become the world's workshop and is a major manufacturing base for products such as electronic products (such as watches and clocks), toys, garments and textiles, plastic products, and a range of other goods. Nearly five percent of the world's goods were produced in the Greater Pearl River Delta in 2001. Over 70,000 Hong Kong companies have plants there.

37. Why visit the Savannah? Warm climate all year round, very few rainy months. Regular flights to Nairobi from European cities A range of tourist companies have hotels in the major destinations of beach side Mombassa with its coral reefs and white sand, the safari parks of the Maasai Mara and the rivers and grasslands of the Great Rift Valley Kenya’s wildlife is completely different to the UK. Safari tours give people the chance to see this inc hippo, cheetah, lion, giraffe and elephant are all found there. Positives for Kenya Increase in wealth in the area Increase in transport and communications links to aid tourists Income to generate development (schools, healthcare) Large numbers of visitors (610,000 in 1990, 1,700,000 in 2010) The government have created protected areas (National Parks) to ensure that the wildlife are safe from poachers. Jobs in tourism have helped develop people's business skills Negatives for Kenya Hotels and tourist facilities use up land which was traditionally owned by local people. Habitats are destroyed and animals endangered. Local tribes like the Maasai have been forced off their grazing areas and have had to change their lifestyles. Minibuses should stay 25m away from wildlife but don’t. This scares the animals and may make them leave a kill, a water hole erodes the savannah. Much of the money made is by tourist companies who are often based outside Kenya The conflict Over the past thirty years Kenya has encouraged the tourist industry. At times this has disadvantaged local people and the wildlife. Kenya has to decide whether to continue as it is or whether to encourage eco tourism. Eco Tourism encourages sustainable practises. Smaller resorts, often owned and managed by local people with a big focus on education. Water is used sparingly, food is sourced locally and much of the profit is used in the local area.

38. Nike s the world's leading supplier of sports footwear and equipment. The company was founded in 1972. The company name comes from the Greek word for 'victory'. Nike does not make any shoes or clothes itself but contracts out to factories in LEDCs. These subcontracted companies then act on their own and re-subcontract their operations in other Asian countries that give low wages and have no employment laws. E.g. Vietnam, The Philippines and Indonesia The numbers… Yearly revenue of $19.2 billion (2009). Products in 140 countries. Contracts to 700 factories in 45 countries. Employing 800.000 people in the supply chain. Negatives of Nike - Sweatshops - Child labour. - Hazardous working conditions - Below subsistence wages. Measures taken by Nike, Code of conduct. Decommissioning. Auditing tools and task force. The average pay at a Nike factory close in Vietnam is $54 a month, 3x higher than other jobs. In 1998 Nike changed the minimum age requirements to 17 yrs Nike have hired independent auditors to make sure that the company subcontractors are living up to Nike’s code of conduct. Children as young as 10 making shoes, clothing and footballs in Pakistan and Cambodia

39. Why visit the Savannah? Tourist companies have hotels in the safari parks of the Maasai Mara. People come to see the wildlife (hippo, cheetah, lion, giraffe, elephant etc.), and take safari tours Positives for Kenya More transport and communications links are built Money is made which helps development (schools, healthcare) Large numbers of visitors (1,700,000 in 2010) Jobs in tourism have helped develop people's business skills Negatives for Kenya Habitats are destroyed by building Local tribes like the Maasai have been forced off their grazing areas. Minibuses should stay 25m away from wildlife but don’t. This scares animals and may make them leave a kill so go hungry (not starve to death!). Going off the tracks erodes the delicate savannah impacting herbivores and the food web. Most of the money goes to international tourist companies The conflict Over the past thirty years Kenya has encouraged the tourist industry. At times this has disadvantaged local people and the wildlife. Managing the Conflict The government have created protected areas (National Parks like the Masai Mara) where habitats are protected and development is controlled. Park Rangers now track the animals to ensure that they are safe from poachers / hunter. Sniffer dogs are used to find bullets or illegally poached goods e.g. ivory so that poachers can’t profit from kills Eco Tourism encourages sustainable practises. Small resorts, often owned or managed by local people with a big focus on education. Water is used sparingly, food is sourced locally and most profits are used locally.

40. The periphery is just outside the economic core, where most people live and some industries are located South East Brazil is the economic CORE region of Brazil, it has primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary industries. The quality of life and wages are higher than anywhere else in Brazil Primary Industries What influence the primary industries here? -Warm temperature -Average rainfall -Rich soils GREAT FOR FARMING Coffee, beef, rice, cacao, sugar cane and fruit are grown here MINING -Large deposits of gold, iron ore, manganese and bauxite make mining very viable here -ENERGY -Oil, gas offshore and hydroelectric power from the large river ensure energy is produced -FOREST/LOGGING -Warm temperatures create the forest -FISHING -Off the coast many are employed in fishing and supplies food for the locals Secondary Industries It is the centre for foreign and national investment in manufacturing. Investment was concentrated her in the 1950s/60s by the Government. Excellent road and rail links here, as well as the most ports and airports. Solid pipeline for oil and gas. Car industry is the major activity – Ford, GM, VW, Fiat and Toyota manufacture here. Other production includes clothing, food, printing and furniture. (Yet decreasing due to competition in AISA) Tertiary Sao Paulo is the largest financial centre in south America. Most headquarters for Brazil’s banks. Quaternary Centre of research and development in public & private sectors. San Jose Dos Campos is the key area. The Aerospace Technical Centre is where space & aviation is developed & tested Map showing Brazil’s regional Human Development Index Rio de Janerio, Santos, Sao Paulo major cities

41. The Pearl Delta is in the Republic of China in the low-lying area surrounding the Pearl River estuary where the Pearl River flows into the South China Sea. It is one of the most densely urbanised regions in the world and one of the main hubs of China's economic growth. The Pearl River Delta is notoriously polluted, with sewage and industrial waste. (Treatment facilities are failing to keep up with the growing population). Much of the area is frequently covered with a brown smog. This has a strong effect on the pollution levels in the delta. In 2007, the World Bank approved a $96 million loan to the Chinese government to reduce water pollution in the Pearl River Delta. 7.1 billion was spent on the river by mid 2010 to clean up the river's sewage problems. The city will build about 30 water treatment plants, which will treat 2.25 million tonnes of water per day. The program hopes to cut down the amount of sewage in the area by 85%, In October 2009, Greenpeace released a report, "Poisoning the Pearl River" that detailed the results of a study it conducted. All samples they took contained hazardous properties including heavy metals such as beryllium, copper and manganese. These substances are associated with a long list of health problems such as cancer, endocrine disruption, renal failure and damage to the nervous system as well being known to harm the environment. The Pearl River Delta has become the world's workshop and is a major manufacturing base for products such as electronic products (such as watches and clocks), toys, garments and textiles, plastic products, and a range of other goods. Nearly five percent of the world's goods were produced in the Greater Pearl River Delta in 2001. Over 70,000 Hong Kong companies have plants there.