2. Linguistics(1)

3. Classroom Rules Class attendance on time Participation in class activities Mutual respect: no spitting; no talking; keeping classroom clean

4. Course Assessment Attendance: 20% Participation (presentation +discussion):20% Final exam: 60%

5. References of the course 语言学教程 ( 胡壮鳞主编 ) 语言学高级教程 ( 胡壮鳞 姜望琪主编 ) 语言学简明教程 ( 胡壮鳞 李战子主编 ) Journals to read: 外语界 ; 外语教学与研 究 ; 外语教学 ; 国外语言学 etc.

6. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching H. H. Stern Principles of Language Learning and Teaching H. Douglas Brown The Study of Second Language Acquisition (by Rod Ellis, 1994, published by Oxford University Press)

7. Course Introduction Rationale: Study of linguistics provides insights into the knowledge of language, branches of linguistics and the relationships among them; it also provides insights into language teaching and learning process that are invaluable for language teachers as well as those who are interested in language learning. This course aims to extend students’ knowledge of research into, and theories of, linguistics and to explore possible

8. pedagogical implications. Such understandings about how language is acquired also inform students, classroom teachers and researchers in other areas of linguistics. Topics covered will include theories and research in linguistics (see the main contents after the objectives).

9. Objectives On completion of this course, participants should be: (1) familiar with the basic knowledge of language, linguistics and branches of linguistics; (2) familiar with the major theories of linguistics and be able to evaluate these in terms of their strengths and weaknesses;

10. (3) familiar with the current issues in linguistics and their possible implications for language teaching practice and classroom-based research.

11. Major contents of the course Session 1: Knowledge about language (8 weeks) Session 2: major branches of linguistics, focusing on pragmatics ( 5 weeks) Session 3: language, culture and society (5 weeks)

12. Session 4: China English studies (8 weeks) Session 5: First Language Acquisition (12 weeks) Session 6; Individual Differences(4weeks)

13. Session 1: Knowledge about Language 1. What is linguistics?

14. Linguistics is a systematic study of language.

15. 2. What is language?

16. System

17. 我的诗的韵律踩醒了窗外的树 ; 心脏成为鼓手, 从三个角度 走向孤独深处 ; 守林人忘记了绿叶荡出的风声 ; 许多只眼睛穿越苍穹 ; 走来, 脚步在草丛里搁浅 ; 彼此触摸黑色的诱惑。

18. Verbal

19. Arbitrary

22. A rose by any other names would smell as sweet.

23. Symbol

24. Human

25. Communication

26. Definition?

27. Language is a system of verbal, arbitrary symbols for human communications.

28. language Human speech A system of vocal sounds A written form of vocal sounds Any means of communicating A set of symbols, letters…

29. 3. Design features of language Design features: the features that define human languages.

30. ▲ arbitrariness

31. ▲ duality

32. ▲creativity

33. 美丽的妈妈开满了山坡

34. A three-year-old boy watching “the Animal World” about how a female lion looks for food for her baby, he asks his mom: 妈妈，母狮子在为宝宝找食物， 那 父狮子 呢？

35. 妈妈煮鸡蛋给 3 岁宝宝吃，宝宝被 蛋黄噎住了，妈妈说：鸡蛋煮老了。 宝宝：妈妈以后你煮 年轻 一点， 好吗？

36. 四岁儿子用手摸爸爸的胡子（ beard) 。 爸爸问：胡子扎疼不疼？ 儿子：疼。你疼不疼？ 爸爸：。。。。？ 儿子： 胡子从你的肉里扎出 来 ，你疼不疼？

37. “ 人来了 ” Translation of 山寨

38. Children's Logic: 'Give me a sentence about a public servant,' said a teacher. The small boy wrote: 'The fireman came down the ladder pregnant.'

39. The teacher took the lad aside to correct him. 'Don't you know what pregnant means?' she asked.

40. 'Sure,' said the young boy confidently. 'It means carrying a child.'

41. I didn't know if my granddaughter had learned her colors yet, so I decided to test her. I would point out something and ask what color it was. She would tell me and was always correct. It was fun for me, so I continued.

42. At last she headed for the door, saying, 'Grandma, I think you should try to figure out some of these yourself!'

43. WHAT IS A GRANDPARENT? (Taken from papers written by a class of 8-year-olds)

44. Grandparents are a lady and a man who have no little children of their own. They like other people's.

45. A grandfather is a man and a grandmother is a lady!

46. Grandparents don't have to do anything except be there when we come to see them. They are so old they shouldn't play hard or run. It is good if they drive us to the shops and give us money.

47. They don't say, 'Hurry up.'

48. Usually grandmothers are fat but not too fat to tie your shoes.

49. They can take their teeth and gums out.

50. It's funny when they bend over; you hear gas leaks, and they blame their dog.

51. Two-year-old with same IQ as Einstein Oscar Wrigley, a two-year-old with the same IQ as Albert Einstein and Stephen Hawking, has become the youngest boy in Britain to be accepted into Mensa.*

52. Assessors at the Gifted Children's Information Centre in Solihull said Oscar, with an IQ of at least 160, is one of the brightest children they have ever come across.

53. Oscar's father Joe, 29, an IT specialist from Reading in Berkshire, said: "Oscar was recently telling my wife about the reproductive cycle of penguins.

54. "He is always asking questions. Every parent likes to think their child was special but we knew there was something particularly remarkable about Oscar.

55. Mrs Wrigley, a housewife, added: "His vocabulary is amazing. He's able to construct complex sentences. "The other day he said to me, 'Mummy, sausages are like a party in my mouth'."

56. ▲ displacement

57. 4. Do animals have languages?

58. There are basically two types of animal communication systems: (1) the remarkable system found in many species of bees:

59. (2) the calls of various monkeys and birds

60. Such systems have only a limited number of signals, each triggered by a certain condition in the world (like the approach of a strange creature) or by an internal state of the animal (like fear) and thus communicating what that condition or state holds.

61. Obviously, these systems can communicate only a limited number of messages: signals (calls) S1 S2 S3 … Sn ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ eliciting conditions C1 C2 C3 … Cn

62. More recent research found that chimps also invent their own personal noises by using particular grunts to mean certain things, though such personal noises are not as obvious as gestures to human observers, but learned behaviors tend to spread most easily only from mother to child instead of spreading through a troop.

63. If chimpanzees were seen as some ancestor of ours, it is more valuable to study its communication. Many researchers feel that chimps are developing toward threshold of speech. It is suggested that early man about 2 million years ago must have been at least as socially advanced as the modern chimp,

64. and has since evolved to the language- speaking societies like the ones we have today.

65. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression, but body language and facial expressions of animals are found to be less arbitrary, less creative, limited in repertoire, emotional-oriented and is lacking in duality.

66. Although so far most people agree that animals don’t have languages yet, some animals are quite clever and intelligent. (A story of the monkey)

67. Clever Monkey Once upon a time there was a nice young man called Karim. He used to sell caps for a living and roam around several villages. One day he would be in village A, the other day people would find him in village B.

68. It was an afternoon in summer and he was traversing the vast plains when he felt tired and wanted to have a nap. He found a nice mango tree with lots of branches and cool shade, placed his bag of caps beside him and went to sleep. Tired as he was, he was quickly fast asleep.

69. When he woke up after a refreshing little nap, he found that there weren’t any caps in his bag! “ Oh, Allah!”, he said to himself, “ Did the thieves have to find me of all people?” But then he noticed that the mango tree was full of cute monkeys wearing colorful caps!

70. He yelled at the monkeys and they screamed back. He made faces at them and found the monkeys to be experts at that. He threw a stone at them and they showered him with raw mangoes.

71. Frustrated, he took off his own cap and slammed it on the ground. And Lo, the stupid monkeys threw their caps too! Smart Karim didn’t waste a second, collected the caps and was on his way.

72. 50 years later, young Abdul, grandson of famous Karim who was also working hard at making money and doing his family business, was going through the same jungle. After a long walk he was very tired and found a nice mango tree with lots of branches and cool shade.

73. Abdul decided to rest a while and very soon was fast asleep. A few hours later, when Abdul woke up, he realized that all the caps from his bag were gone!!! Abdul started searching for the same and to his surprise found some monkeys sitting on the mango tree wearing his caps.

74. Abdul was frustrated and didn’t know what to do. And then he remembered the story his grandfather proudly used to tell him. “Yes! I can fool these monkeys!!!!”, said Abdul. “I’ll make them imitate me and very soon I’ll get all my caps back!”

75. Abdul waved at the monkeys – the Monkeys waved at Abdul; Abdul started dancing – the Monkeys were also dancing; Abdul pulled his ears – the Monkeys pulled their ears; Abdul raised his hands – the Monkeys raised their hands;

76. Abdul threw his cap on the ground … Just then, one of the monkeys jumped down from the tree quickly, grabbed the cap Abdul threw on the ground and walked up to Abdul,

77. and said ----- Do you think ONLY YOU had a grandfather?

78. 5. Perspectives of language studies Language involves three activities: a. Human brain b. muscular activity of the body c. social activity

79. 5.1 Language as innate human knowledge

80. Noam Chomsky (1928-) Institute Professor; Professor of Linguistics Linguistic Theory, Syntax, Semantics, Philosophy of Language born on December 7, 1928 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Graduated at the University of Pennsylvania where he received his PhD in linguistics in 1955.

81. During the years 1951 to 1955, Chomsky was a Junior Fellow of the Harvard University Society of Fellows.While a Junior Fellow he completed his doctoral dissertation entitled, "Transformational Analysis." The major theoretical viewpoints of the dissertation appeared in the monograph Syntactic Structure, which was published in 1957.

82. This formed part of a more extensive work, The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory. Chomsky has received honorary degrees from a number of universities around the world, such as Uni. of London, of Chicago, of Massachusetts, of Pennsylvania, Georgetown University, Cambridge University, of Buenos Aires, McGill University, Universitat Rovira I Virgili, Tarragona, Columbia University,

83. University of Connecticut, University of Toronto, Harvard University, University of Calcutta, etc, etc. He is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Science. In addition, he is a member of other professional and learned societies in the United States and abroad,

84. and is a recipient of the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award of the American Psychological Association, the Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences, the Helmholtz Medal, the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award, the Ben Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science, and others

85. Chomsky has written and lectured widely on linguistics, philosophy, intellectual history, contemporary issues, international affairs and U.S. foreign policy. His works include: Aspects of the Theory of Syntax; Cartesian Linguistics; Sound Pattern of English (with Morris Halle); Language and Mind; American Power and the New Mandarins; At War with Asia; For Reasons of State; Peace in the Middle East?;

86. Reflections on Language; The Political Economy of Human Rights, Vol. I and II (with E.S. Herman); Rules and Representations; Lectures on Government and Binding; Towards a New Cold War; Radical Priorities; Fateful Triangle; Knowledge of Language; Turning the Tide; Pirates and Emperors; On Power and Ideology; Language and Problems of Knowledge; The Culture of Terrorism;

87. Manufacturing Consent (with E.S. Herman); Necessary Illusions; Deterring Democracy; Year 501; Rethinking Camelot: JFK, the Vietnam War and US Political Culture; Letters from Lexington; World Orders, Old and New; The Minimalist Program; Powers and Prospects; The Common Good; Profit Over People; The New Military Humanism; New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind; Rogue States; A New Generation Draws the Line; 9-11; and Understanding Power.

88. Language Acquisition Device (LAD) or Universal Grammar (UG) language acquisition is innately (biologically ) determined, that we’re born with a genetic capacity that predisposes us to a systematic perception of language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of language. (innateness hypotheses)

89. Three year old American boy in Yichang (yichang dialect: what are you doing?) Little children can sometimes talk like adults. (ziyan: haohao dushu, denglong)

90. (i) Colourless green ideas sleep furiously. (ii) Furiously sleep ideas green colourless.

91. Newborn babies cry out in their mother tongue

92. While native speakers of English would have trouble interpreting both these sentences, they would have no trouble identifying the first as grammatically feasible and the second as nonsense.

93. So, according to Chomsky, UG is a set of genetically endowed grammatical principles which regulate what is and is not possible in the structure of a language and which explain how children can use the deficient evidence to which they have access to produce novel but grammatically correct utterances.

94. UG present in the child grows into the adult’s knowledge of the language so long as certain environmental ‘triggers’ are provided…. Language acquisition is the growth of the mental organ of language triggered by certain language experiences. Cook(1985) defines UG as being made up of “the language properties inherent in the human mind.”

95. UG does not, therefore, consist of particular rules or a particular language, but is a ‘genetically determined predilection’ (interest) or a set of general principles that apply to all languages and do not vary from person to person.

96. It is like a video recorder which needs two elements to function: the unchanging equipment itself, which is the same in every set that is sold (the principles), and the variable tuning, which has to be set to local conditions ( the parameters).

97. →innate knowledge is embodied in a “little black box” (children’s mastery of a native language in such a short time).

98. There are 2 components which contribute to language acquisition: ※ the innate knowledge of the learner (UG: principles) ※ the environment (parameter)

99. Genie’s story:

104. In Temple City, California, Nov. 1970, Genie was found when she was 13. She weighed only 59 pounds and was only 54 inches tall. She was in much worse physical shape than at first suspected: she was incontinent, could not chew solid food and could hardly swallow,

105. Could not focus her eyes beyond twelve feet, and, according to some accounts, could not cry. She salivated constantly, spat indiscriminately. She had a ring of hard callus around her buttocks, and she had two nearly complete sets of teeth. Her hair was thin.

106. She could not hop, skip, climb, or do anything requiring the full extension of her limbs. She showed no perception of heat or cold, and of course could not talk. Her vocabulary was fewer than 20. She seemed able to say only “stopit” and “nomore”.

107. Everyone thought she could be taught to speak but when it became obvious that the project was failing no one wanted anything to do with her and she is now spending her life in a mental home having been abused in a number of foster homes - shocking!!!!!

108. 羊 孩

109. 羊孩栓栓

110. 以前我们听过狼孩、熊孩的故事，而在陕 西榆林的王家河村有一个 “ 羊孩 ” 。因为长年 没人照料，王家河村的六岁男孩拴拴，从 刚会走路开始就被拴在了一棵树上。整整 六年时间，和他做伴的只有一只山羊。一 年前，在黄河岸边的小山村王家河村，记 者第一次见到了羊孩拴拴。那时拴拴已经 六岁了，可还是不会说话，只能用 “ 咩、咩 ” 的羊叫声表达感情。

111. 拴拴的妈妈在他四个月大的时候去世了， 爸爸又智力低下，全家唯一的劳动力是他 74 岁的奶奶。奶奶说，把拴拴绑在树上实 在是没办法的事，因为年纪太大，家里、 地里的活又都要奶奶一个人干，她根本没 有时间照看拴拴。而院子外面是十几丈高 的悬崖，下面就是波涛汹涌的黄河。

112. 记者：为什么不让他出去和别的娃娃一块 玩？ 拴拴奶奶李桂花：我是怕跌进黄河里去被水 冲走了。就这样, 每天早上奶奶下地 前，拴拴就被拴在门前的树上，晚上奶 奶干完所有的活才给他结开绳套，让他 到炕上睡觉。

113. 拴拴奶奶李桂花：闲了就放开一阵儿，忙了就拴 住，那实际上常忙着了，就常拴着了。 记者看到，拴拴的活动范围不足三平米。因为没 有人教，他没有一点生活自理能力，无论吃饭、 穿衣，都要别人帮忙。从来没有同村小孩和拴拴 一起玩耍，每天和他做伴的只有家里的老山羊。 拴拴和羊很亲，可是对人却没什么反应，久而久 之，村里人认为拴拴又聋又哑，智力也有问题， 都管他叫 “ 憨憨 ” 、 “ 哑童 ” 。

114. 这么漂亮的孩子变成这样，真是看得人挺心疼。 小拴拴的遭遇也引起了很多人的关注，在好心人 的帮助下，去年年底， “ 羊孩 ” 拴拴终于摆脱身上 的绳套，进入了陕西榆林市聋哑语言康复学校。 如今，小拴拴已经在学校学习将近一年了，这一 年中拴有什么变化吗？ 但拴拴还是不会和人交流，有什么想法，他还是 像以前一样，咿咿呀呀地喊上一通。 学校一位老师也养了一只羊，拴拴和羊还是很亲。

115. 榆林聋儿康复学校老师刘承德：他现在碰 见羊非常眷恋，对人不怎么眷恋。 几天前， 记者看到一些媒体上登出了拴拴开口说话 的消息，连忙赶到榆林市聋哑学校去探望 他。但拴拴的辅导老师刘承德并不热情， 也不愿让记者去见拴拴。打听之下才知道， 关于 “ 拴拴开口说话 ” 报道并不属实，一贯注 重教育实效的刘老师, 对这些媒体不负责任 的报道很不高兴。

116. 记者：会说话是真的还是假的？ 榆林聋哑康复学校辅导老师刘承德：不 会。 记者：说是会叫爸爸妈妈了？ 刘承德：他是自然声音，不知要有多少次的重复 刺激才能有这一半句。 在和刘老师进行沟通后，记者最终见到了拴拴。 起初见到记者，小拴拴很兴奋，可是当记者坚持 要求听听拴拴的声音时，无论老师怎么对着图片 引导，他都不出声。

117. 老师让他和同伴到了滑梯、转盘跟前，虽然玩得 热火朝天，拴拴还是一声不吭。虽然并没有学会 说话，但刘老师说，拴拴的进步还是很大的。 拴拴地奶奶李桂花：比在家里强多了，大小便自己 会往下蹲了。 刘承德：有进步，进步在那些方面呢？比如基本上 能考察出来，这个娃娃的智慧是够的，他的脑子 不是憨子，只是动物化了。

118. The Jungle Woman

119. For eighteen years, she lived in the wilds on the border between Cambodia and Vietnam, together with monkeys. Her name is Rochom P’ngieng, but everyone knows her as the Jungle Woman. She disappeared at the age of eight in 1989 and was not found till two years ago.

120. Since then, the young woman, now 28, has never been able to readjust to life in society. Parents and relatives no longer know what to do. Rochom continues to lose weight, refuses to eat, takes off all her clothes in public and regularly tries to escape.

121. She doesn’t speak but simply utters inarticulate sounds like those of monkeys. Her eyes, often expressionless, only light up when she sees the jungle: she dreams of returning to it, to that natural environment in which she grew up and spent a large part of her life.

122. 5.2 Language as a fixed code Language is a code, namely, it is the sets of phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic rules that, together with the lexicon, can be used to construct any or all sentences of a language;

123. when these sentences are combined into larger units, we get texts.

124. 5.3 Language as a system Language use is functional; its function is to make meanings; these meanings are influenced by the social and cultural context in which they are exchanged; the process of using language is a semiotic process, a process of making meanings by choosing.

125. 5.4 Language as interaction Language as social interaction involves not just vocal behavior but many kinds of behavior, and to engage in face-to-face linguistic communication is, in the simplest type of case, to co-monitor with one other person a behavioral continuum along which a succession of integrated events

126. can be expected to occur. To have grasped and be able to exploit these integrational connections is what makes us communicationally proficient members of a community.

127. “ Language and communication are the two sides of the same coin”.

128. People in a persistent vegetative state The suicidal girl Visit to Yanbian uni. of science and tech. Autism Genie’s story Students’ sweet mobile messages

129. Implications for classroom teaching （ 1 ） to provide opportunities for communication. McNamara (1973) has argued that ‘the really important part of motivation lies in the act of communication.

130. Rossier (1975) also emphasizes the importance of a desire to communicate, arguing that without this, students’ motivation may not be effective. It is the need to get meanings across and the pleasure experienced when this is achieved that provides the motivation to learn an L2.

131. （ 2 ） To provide opportunities for group work. Teachers should try to ensure that students’ interest is engendered as a result of a good rapport with the learners. As Finocchiaro (1981) puts it:

132. The moment of truth--- the enhancement of motivation--- occurs when the teacher closes the classroom door, greets his students with a warm, welcoming smile, and proceeds to interact with various individuals by making comments or asking questions which indicate personal concern.

133. 6. Functions of language 6.1 Referential function The transmission of information is the first thing we think of when we consider the functions of language. Informational, or referential, or ideational function is associated with what objects and ideas are called and how events are described.

134. 6.2 Interpersonal function It is concerned with interaction betw. the addresser and addressee in a discourse situation and the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.

135. Attached to the interpersonal function of language, is its function of the expression of identity. The chanting, the shouting, the stage-managed audience reactions to TV shows all signal who we are and where we belong. Language marks our identity:

136. physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints; psychologically in terms of personality and intelligence; geographically in terms of accents and dialects; ethnically and socially in terms of social stratification, class, status, role, solidarity and distance.

137. 6.3 Performative function

138. 6.4. Emotive function (in the hearer) This function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.

139. According to David Crystal (1992), the EMOTIVE function is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress. Expressive function (in the speaker)

140. 6.5 Phatic communion

141. For example, in Pormpuraaw, a remote Aboriginal community in Australia, the indigenous languages don't use terms like "left" and "right." Instead, everything is talked about in terms of absolute cardinal directions (north, south, east, west), which means you say things like, "There's an ant on your southwest leg."

142. To say hello in Pormpuraaw, one asks, "Where are you going?", and an appropriate response might be, "A long way to the south-southwest. How about you?" If you don't know which way is which, you literally can't get past hello.

143. Different cultures have different topics of phatic communion: How are you How are you going, mate? Good, and yourself? G’day

144. The weather is not a universal conversation filler as the English might like to think. Rundi women (in Brundi, Central Africa), upon taking leave, routinely and politely say” I must go home now, or my husband will beat me.”

145. 6.6 Recreational function

146. Try to find out the different functions of the following. 1) Water boils at 100 degrees. 2) I’m so happy that you could come. 3) “Help”!!! 4) 赵本山、宋丹丹的小品 5) I’m extremely sorry about the bad news.

147. 6) 山歌对唱 7) 过年好 ! 8) A sneezes violently B: Bless you! A: Thank you. 9) 小沈阳的 “ 那是为什么呢？ ” 10) The judge said: John is going to be sentenced to death.

148. 11) Dear Betsy, I want to know something about your linguistics teaching for this term. 12) “Ugh” 13) When someone breaks a bowl, the host is likely to say” 岁岁 ( 碎碎 ) 平安 ”. 14) “Hello, sweety, come and play!”

149. 7. Important distinctions in linguistics (1) Competence & Performance

150. Competence: one’s underlying knowledge of a system, event, or fact; non-observable ability to do sth., to perform sth.

151. Performance: overtly observable and concrete manifestation or realization of competence; the actual doing of sth. Language competence and performance

152. http://you.video.sina.com.cn/b/6438392- 1414996711.htmlhttp://you.video.sina.com.cn/b/6438392- 1414996711.html

153. (2) Descriptive( 描述式 ) vs. prescriptive ( 规定式 )

154. A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” behaviour. Put it differently, if a linguist talks about “what is in language or “what people actually say”, he is descriptive; if he tells people “what should be in language”

155. Or “ what people should say”, he is prescriptive.

156. A story that can illustrate prescription: I had taken a part-time job at a well-known language school, and as a part of that job I was expected to be open to being supervised. One day, a person I had never seen before walked in and sat down as I was in the process of teaching a reading lesson. I was trying out a few ideas and

157. wanted to see the consequences of not going over vocabulary before having the students read. Instead of presenting vocabulary, I was having the students read a story several times, each time working on a different task such as underlining words which described the person in the story or crossing out words they did not know. The supervisor sat in the back of

158. the room taking notes, and I became nervous. After the class, the supervisor came over to me. She smiled and whispered that she would like to meet with me at her office after the class. At this meeting, she opened by leaning over, touching me on the arm, smiling and saying, “I hope you don’t mind. I’m not

159. one to beat around the bush.” I sank a little further into my chair. She proceeded to tell me that I should always write difficult vocabulary on the board and go over it before the students read, that students should read aloud to help them with pronunciation, and that in every class there should be discussion so that students have the chance to practice the new vocabulary….

160. You can likely identify with the teacher’s experience of being supervised. The supervisor believes that she knows the best way to teach and tells the teacher, in a prescriptive manner, how he should be teaching.

161. (3) Synchronic ( 共时 )and Diachronic ( 历时 ) The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.

162. (4) Langue and parole This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure early last century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Parole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.

163. Langue: the structure of the language Parole: the actual utterances

164. This pair is similar to the pair of competence and performance.

165. Session 2: major branches of linguistics 1. Phonetics and phonology Phonetics is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound- making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.

166. Speech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least 3 branches of phonetics: ◆ articulatory phonetics( 发音语音学 ) auditory phonetics( 听觉语音学 ) acoustic phonetics( 声学语音学 )

167. Articulatory phonetics: Speech sounds may be studied from the point of view of the speaker, that is, we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process.

168. Auditory phonetics: the sound produced by the speaker will be received by the hearer. Speech sounds therefore may also be studied from the hearer’s point of view. We may look into the impression a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain.

169. Acoustic phonetics: to make a speech sound visible so that we can measure its components objectively we must then go into the domain of acoustic phonetics, which studies the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.

170. [f]: voiceless, labiodental, fricative [n]: voiced, alveolar, nasal, plosive

171. Are coughs or snores speech sounds?

172. No, they’re not speech sounds because they are not units in the language system. They do not express one’s thoughts or feelings in a systematic way.

173. Phonology is the study of sound systems– the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall. Phonology identifies the set of speech sounds for each language, how they are arranged to form meaningful units, and the function of each sound..

174. bin / pin; stop / top

175. Good morning act

176. syllable

177. stress

178. rythm

179. Phonology reveals what the possible combinations of sounds in a language are and explains why certain words take the form they do.

180. 2. Morphology the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

181. 3. Syntax the study of how sentences are properly formed out of words of a language.

182. 4. Semantics the study of meaning

183. 7 types of meaning in G. Leech’s Semantics

184. 1). Conceptual meaning ( 概念意义 ) 2). Associative meaning ★ Connotative meaning ( 内涵意义 ) ★ Social meaning ( 社会意义 ) ★ Affective meaning ( 情感意义 ) ★ Reflected meaning ( 反映意义 ) ★ Collocative meaning ( 搭配意义 ) ★ Thematic meaning ( 主位意义 )

185. 1). conceptual meaning: logical, cognitive or denotative content 2). Connotative meaning: what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.

186. 3). social meaning: what is communicated of the social circumstances of language. 4). affective meaning: what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer

187. 5). reflected meaning: what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression. 6). collocative meaning: what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.

188. 7). thematic meaning: what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.

189. 5. Pragmatics

190. In daily conversations, we see participants successfully communicating because they share certain kinds of “background information’ and expectations: each other’s ‘biographies’, the way conversations are organized, how they are to interpret each other’s meanings and intentions,

191. how they can regulate and co-ordinate turn-taking, what and how they must contribute in order for the conversation to work.

192. In other words, participants reveal their linguistic and communicative competence in relating linguistic forms to the context of the communication and in using their cognitive ‘powers’ to work out logically the state of play of the interaction.

193. the study of meaning in actual situations; speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning; language in use. Pragmatics = meaning - semantics

194. Morris(1976) distinguishes syntax, semantics and pragmatics in the following way:

195. Syntactics (syntax): the relation among linguistic signs; Semantics: the relation between these signs and their referents; Pragmatics: the relation between these signs and their users.

196. BYO XXXX Today it’s Sunday. My husband is Bill Gates Yang Zhenning is married to Wengfan.

197. Student A to B: Tell you what, Hu Xiaoqiong is going to teach us General Linguistics this term. Student B: ???? !!!!!

198. Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationship between sentences & the contexts and situations in which they are used. It includes the study of :

199. — how speakers use & understand speech acts — how the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker& the hearer.

200. Meaning of words The understanding of a word or sentence in grammar. Contextual meaning The implied meaning of a sentence or utterance.

201. Exercise one :Try to fill the table with contextual meaning or context( the participants)

202. Statementmeaningcontext 1. “It’s raining.” Mother to young son dressed only in T-shirt and shorts who is going outside. 2. “I feel tired.”1)It’s time you went home. 2)I’ve done enough work today. 3)I’m ready to die.

203. 3.“ The door is open.” A bank manager to a clerk standing in front of the safe in the morning. A person arrives home without a key, no one is there, the person tries the door and it opens. A person sitting in a room that is freezing cold. A receptionist in a office; someone has just rung the bell.

204. Therefore, we can make the generalization that pragmatics involves a receiver (hearer or reader) who attempts to understand and interpret what a sender (speaker or writer) intends to convey in his/her message.

205. Senders, for their part, must attempt to encode messages in such a way that their intentions are interpreted correctly and appropriately. Receivers rely on a number of factors to arrive at their interpretations. Three important factors to remember:

206. ● Context

207. A: Do you mind my smoking? B: Make yourself at home please.

208. A: Do you want some tea? B: Tea would keep me awake.

209. ● Deictic ( pointing with language )

210. here, there, this that, now, then, pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, etc.

211. ※ I’ll be back in an hour. ※ Meet me here a week from now with a stick about this big. ※ 某产品包装上写着：保质期 12 个月 ※ 当日产品， 保证新鲜

212. ※ Mother calling son by saying:

213. 你猜猜妈是谁？

214. A: John Smith is sick and can’t attend class today. He requested me to tell you. B: All right. Who is speaking? A: This is my roommate.

215. ● Presupposition

216. Speakers continually frame their messages according to what they assume their hearers already know or what they assume to be true. For example,

217. § Your brother is waiting outside. § Why did you arrive late? § When did you stop beating your wife?

218. Thus, our knowledge of what goes on in the world continually informs our understanding and interpretation of what speakers say and mean.

219. Major theories in pragmatics

220. ★ Speech act theory

221. a. Representative : John Langshaw Austin(1911-1960) — not a linguist, but a philosopher — His ideas on language were set out in a series of lectures in Oxford University.

222. Austin noted that many sentences are not statements about something, but rather they perform an act in the saying of the sentence.

223. A: Darling, the telephone is ringing. B: I’m in the bath.

224. The diner was annoyed because he had a knife and a fork but no spoon for his coffee. So, he said to the waiter: “This coffee is pretty hot to stir with my finger”.

225. Neighbour: Do you think your son will forget all he learned at college? Father: I hope so---he certainly can’t make a living by kissing girls.

226. b. definition of speech act A speech act is a form of words which, if spoken or written in appropriate conditions, and under appropriate conventions, actually constitutes the performance of an action. Austin calls them “ performatives”

227. E.g. I promise to pay you ￥ 500. = the speaker commits himself to pay the addressee ￥ 500.(an act of promise)

228. c. Performatives( 施为句）

229. Performative verbs 1. The utterance itself means the action;

230. 2. If you don’t speak out, you can’t do something.

231. d. Locutionary act, Illocutionary act & Perlocutionary act

232. Locutionary act （表述性言语行为） : It is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression from the language. It is the level of grammar. It refers to the act of saying sth. except that you are tongue-tied.

233. E.g. asking / answering a question: he said to me ‘ shoot her!’

234. Illocutionary act （施为性言语行为） An act performed in saying sth. This act is actually the intention of the speaker. It is performed via the communicative force of an utterance.

235. He urged ( or advised or ordered, etc.) me to shoot her.

236. Perlocutinary act( 成事性言语行为） An act performed by or as the result of saying, an act of affecting the hearer. This act means the effect created by an utterance with a function on the hearer.

237. I shot her (or I didn’t).

238. Of great interest to linguists, and to applied linguists who develop language teaching programs, is the relationship between utterances and the functions they convey. Knowledge about this kind of relationship is important because without it speakers would need to stick to one predictable linguistic form per function to

239. obtain the necessary action rather than the wide range of less predictable realizations available, e.g. “it’s hot in here”. Language learners must develop the ability to infer the intention and function underlying contextual uses ‘surrounding’ the saying of the utterance.

240. shared knowledge

241. A: Do you like rugby? B: I’m a New Zealander.

242. A: Are you keen on spicy food? B: I’m a Sichuanese.

243. familiarity of the participants

244. tone of voice

245. Particular illocutionary or speech acts (= communicative functions) are not predictably linked to particular linguistic forms.

246. Particular act (function) to be performed, e.g. requesting a door to be opened (discuss how many possible ways):

247. --- Open the door (expected form) --- Can you open the door? --- Would you mind opening the door? --- The door really should be opened! --- Why not open the door? --- Haven’t you forgotten something?

248. --- You’ll open the door this minute, or else! --- I’d prefer the door opened. --- It’s hot in here. --- Aren’t you awfully hot? --- Various non-verbal gestures.

249. ★ Conversational implicature

250. What is conversation?

251. While foreign visitors (to China) used to complain that they could not have informal conversations with Chinese whom they met casually on the street, they are nowadays groaning that they are pestered by hordes of young people, anxious to improve their English but not really capable of holding a sustained conversation (China Daily).

252. Conversation is face-to-face (not necessarily so) oral interaction between two or more participants. It is more than merely the exchange of information by using grammar and vocabulary.

253. When people take part in it, they bring to the conversational process shared assumptions and expectations about what it is, how it develops, and the sort of contribution they are expected to make. When people engage in conversations, they share common principles that lead them to interpret each other’s utterances as contributing to it.

254. Interpretable

255. A: where did you buy that shirt? B: He drank a lot of wine and came and said that he wanted to marry me.

256. 甲 : 那个事你那个了没有 ? 乙 : 那个事不容易那个. 甲 : 不管好那个不好那个, 你无论如何要 那个. 乙 : 我尽量那个, 不过现在办事少不了那 个. 甲 : 你要多少那个我就给你多少那个, 不 舍的那个还能那个.

257. Α: 你的自行车怎么来的 ? Β: 搞来的。

258. A: 你有什么了不起的 ? 能把我吃了 ?

259. B: 不能，我是 回民。

260. A: Can you come to the cinema with me tonight?

261. B: sorry, I can’t.

262. A: why not?

263. B: I’ve got to wash my hair tonight.

264. A: How about tomorrow night?

265. B: I can’t either.

266. A: why not?

267. B: I’ve got to wash my hair again.

268. A: Do you wash your hair everyday?

269. B: it depends.

270. A: depends on what?

271. B: depends on who asks me to go to the cinema.

272. Conversational implicature an additional unstated meaning that has to be assumed; speakers can implicate something beyond the words spoken.

273. e.g. The president is a mouse. Analysis : It is literally false, the hearer must assume the speaker means to convey more than is being said.

274. Where’s my box of chocolates? (Give possible answers)

275. --- I was feeling hungry. --- They’re too delicious. --- I’ve got a train to catch. --- The children were in your room this morning. --- where’s your diet sheet?

276. (angry) 妻 : 这家里谁说了算？ (angry) 夫：当然是我说了算！ (more angry) 妻：我说了算！！！ 夫： 啊，我只是随便问问。

277. A: How are you getting on with your wife?

278. B: Very well, thank you. My wife permits me to be the boss in the family.

279. A: I was born in California. B: Which part? A: All of me.

280. Teacher: We’re going to talk about the tense today. Now if I say, I am beautiful, which tense is it?

281. Student: Obviously, it is the past tense.

282. Customer: Waiter, there is a hair in my soup! Waiter: Blond or red? We’re missing a waitress.

283. Rules of speaking

284. Language and communications are at the heart of human experiences.

285. There are many occasions when we hear ourselves or others commenting on the way that various ethnic, national and ethnic groups converse, e.g. “those Americans---they’ll talk you into submission!;

286. “that Italian chap started off telling me his joke in the meat section of the supermarket and by the time he got to the punchline --- he was grabbing my arm all the while --- we ended up near the veges!;

287. “ I asked a couple of the Aboriginal blokes to come around on Monday morning to give me a hand with the fence, but they never turned up!”

288. All communities possess conventions which dictate when, how, how much and how often speech occurs. Thus Indian speakers in North America find that English speakers talk too much, always interrupt and talk to people they don’t know while they only talk when social relationships are known and established;

289. English speakers, on the other hand, rely heavily on talk to get to know other people.

290. Culture-specific patterns or conventions of speaking differ from culture to culture: ∽ the appropriate presence/ absence of speech (for men, women, children) ∽ physical distance (proxemics) ∽ tactile response

291. ∽ turn-taking ∽ loudness ∽ directness ∽ interpretation of speech acts

292. Observations: 1) Milingimbi yolngu, Aborigines in northern Australia, have different rules of talking behavior to those of white Australians. There’s less of a firm commitment to future actions than there would be for whites.

293. 2) In some cultures, e.g., Greece and some Middle Eastern and Asian countries, it is considered polite to refuse offers of food three or four times before finally accepting. However, for American or British hosts, maximum two. insistent or pushy

294. Asian students studying in America were recently reported as complaining that they were going hungry!

295. 3) In Japan, it is considered impolite to refer to someone directly using the pronoun he or she. Therefore, Japanese students of English frequently avoid these pronouns by using proper names instead. Over- use of names to English speakers.

296. English: Where’s Mr. Smith? Japanese: Mr. Smith’s just left to go to the hospital. English: What’s wrong with him? Japanese: Mr. Smith’s wife has had an accident.

297. 4) British English take care to pitch their voices so as not to intrude on those around them. This may look conspirational to Americans, whose normal volume appears, on the other hand, too low and sounds insincere to Arabs.

298. How about Chinese people?

299. 5) the narrative style of Vietnamese discourse stands in marked contrast to the ‘direct’, ‘linear’ style of English speakers.

300. In answer to an Australian job interviewer’s question, “ what sort of work are you going to do when you finish the course?” (ss.)

301. “ A few weeks ago ah… the school sen(t) me to (the) factory doing canvassing … for 2 weeks’ experience and ah the boss (said to ) give me a position, but I (said) when I will finish the course because I have learned to do some more job(s) and cannot take it.”

302. Summary?

303. 2) Cooperative principle It is a basic assumption in conversation that each participant will attempt to contribute appropriately, at the required time, to the current exchange of talk.

304. Put forward by the famous linguistic philosopher H P Grice (1975). He summed up the CP in this way: “make your conversation contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”.

305. The CP explains how particular speaker utterances, which on the surface may not appear appropriate, are interpreted as being so by assuming the speaker is adhering to the CP.

306. If a “gap” does appear, it is there for a reason and hearers fill it in, that is, they infer what is being conversationally implicated. In observing this CP, speakers normally adhere to 4 conversational conventions or maxims:

307. Quantity, Quality, Relation and Manner

308. Quantity (two maxims) i) make your contribution as informative as required ii) do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

309. What is your name, please?

310. My name is Wan Renmi. I’m 25, not married, and very good looking as you can obviously see.

311. Quality i) do not say what you believe to be false; ii) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

312. Tell us something about your family. My father is Zhao Zhongxiang, mother Niping, brother Zhao Benshan, sister Zhao Wei, and my name is Joking.

313. Chat on the internet; ads for partners; etc.

314. Relation Be relevant; make your contribution relevant to the aims of the ongoing conversation.

315. Have you had your meal? I’ve just been to the toilet.

316. Manner (how) i) avoid obscurity of expression ii) avoid ambiguity iii) be brief iv) be orderly

317. I’ll be back soon.

318. A: How do you like my painting? B: I don’t have an eye for beauty, I’m afraid.

319. ★ Exercise : violation of the maxims and its implicature 1. Assume that you are teaching a course. A fellow instructor approaches you after you have graded a test and asks “ How did Mr. Goh do?” You respond with “Well, he wrote something down for every question.” a. which of maxim does your response seem to violate? b. what is the implicature raised by your response?

320. 2. Conversation Bob: Do you want some dessert? Ray: Do birds have wings? which of Grice’s maxims is violated by Ray’s reply? what is the implicature raised by Ray’s reply?

321. 3. Conversation Tom: I’m the most intelligent person at this university. Dick: And I’m the King of Rumania.

322. 4. Mother: Have you finish your homework and kept your books? Son: I’ve put away my books.

323. 5. You walk into the living room, where your roommate is reading. You ask what he is reading and he answers, “A book..”You take his response as a minor insult and leave the room. a. Which of Grice’s maxims does your roommate’s utterance appear to violate? b. What is the implicature raised by your roommate’s utterance?

324. Session 3: language, culture and society Part 1. Related issues 1. Is there a common language for all mankind?

325. Like so many other innovations, the idea of one common language for all mankind appeared for the first time, in European thought, during the Renaissance. It has been estimated that since then nearly 700 such artificial languages have been tried.

326. The most influential and most widely recognized is of course Esperanto designed by the Polish linguist Dr. Ludwig Zamenhof in 1887. It’s officially recognized by a range of international organizations from the UN and UNESCO to professional associations

327. of doctors, teachers, scientists, stamp and coin collectors, and many others. Many newspapers and magazines were published in Esperanto editions worldwide, and Esperanto was broadcast for hundreds of hours each year in many countries. Over 10,000 books were

328. published in Esperanto, and it was taught officially in over 30 universities and 600 schools. Esperantists claimed that their language was spoken by several million people all over the world and they held annual congresses that were attended, on average, by 2-5000 members.

329. But Esperanto has lost its popularity quickly and it’s almost disappeared now. Why?

330. 1) Language is the major vehicle of culture and human communication, moreover, language is an instrument of national culture.

331. 2) A language becomes an international language for one chief reason: the political power of its people--- especially their military power.

332. 2. How many languages are there in the world now? And what is their situation like?

333. Languages have been coming and going for millennia, but in recent times there has been less coming and a lot more going. When the world was still populated by hunter-gatherers, small, tightly knit groups developed their own patterns of speech independent of each other.

334. Some linguists reckon that 10,000 years ago, when the world had just 5 m – 10 m people, they spoke perhaps 12,000 languages between them.

335. Soon afterwards many of those people started settling down to become farmers, and their languages too became more settled and fewer in number. In recent centuries, colonization, trade, industrialization and the spread of universal compulsory education

336. have helped to extirpate (destroy) many languages that had previously prospered in isolation. At present, the world has about 6800 distinct languages. The distribution of these languages is hugely uneven.

337. The general rule is that temperate zones( 温带 ) have relatively few languages, often spoken by many people, whereas hot, wet zones have lots, often spoken by small numbers.

338. Europe: 200 languages The Americas: 1000 Africa: 2400 Asia and the Pacific: 3200

339. The median number of speakers is a mere 6000, which means that half the world’s languages are spoken by fewer people than that.

340. Already well over 400 of the total of 6800 languages are close to extinction, with only a few elderly speakers left. E.g. Busuu in Cameroon: 8 speakers now Chiapaneco in Mexico: 150 Lipan Apache in the US.: 2-3 Wadjigu in Australia: 1 (?)

341. Worse, probably 3000 or so others are also endangered.

342. Linguists classify languages on a scale ranging from “safe” to “endangered” and “critically endangered”: Safe: learned by all children in the group and spoken by all its members. Endangered: children no longer learn the language and only adults speak it.

343. Critically endangered: only a few old speakers.

344. The future of the languages: All the experts agree that by the end of this century the number of languages in use will be much smaller than it is now. The optimists: half will survive. The pessimists: 90% will be gone in 100 years.

345. 3. Could life be simpler, better and perhaps more peaceful if everybody could settle on one, or just a few languages?

346. No. There’s little evidence that monolingualism promotes peace. In Northern Ireland, Protestants and Catholics speak the same language. Vietnam and Somalia are both predominantly monolingual. When Yugoslavia fell into civil war, most of its people were speaking Serbo-Croat.

347. A shared language may even make people more bellicose. According to a legend of the Acoma tribe in New Mexico, the goddess Iatiku caused languages to multiply so that people would quarrel less.

348. 4. Why should we try every means to protect the endangered languages? Or why should we care so much about the endangered languages?

349. (1) human beings have been trying to preserve some rare butterfly, wildflower or ecosystem. In the same way, languages should be preserved to safeguard diversity: a widespread loss of languages is the equivalent of an ecological disaster.

350. The parts of the world with the greatest linguistic variety, such as southern Asia, Africa and Central America, are also home to the greatest variety of species. Countries with many endangered languages also have many endangered birds.

351. (2) The extinction of each language results in the irrecoverable loss of unique cultural, historical and ecological knowledge. Each language is a unique expression of the human experience of the world… Every time a language dies, we have less evidence for understanding patterns in the structure and function of human language

352. human prehistory, and the maintenance of the world’s diverse ecosystems. Above all, speakers of these languages may experience the loss of their language as a loss of their original ethnic and cultural identity (from a 2003 UNESCO paper).

353. Kenneth Hale (a lecturer in MIT) put it more passionately: “ When you lose a language, you lose a culture, intellectual wealth, a work of art. It’s like dropping a bomb on a museum.”

354. (3) full of sound and significance: Such museums contain many treasures. One of the excitements for linguists is the sheer variety of human languages. They cover a large range of sounds, including clicks (heard only in Africa’s Khoisan languages), and a wealth of different kinds of syntax, grammar and vocabulary.

355. Each has its own intricate rules. There are wonderful oddities such as Ubykh, from the Caucasus, which has 81 consonants but only three vowels (and became extinct in 1992); and Rotokas, from Papua New Guinea with only 6 consonants and 5 vowels.

356. When it comes to vocabulary, the story about the Eskimos’ many words for snow, to match the many varieties they encounter, is well known.

357. Eskimos have quite a range of different words for snow, and English too: snow, sleet, slush and so on. The total is about the same, but the Eskimos words make different distinctions from the English ones, such as “snow on the ground ( aput)”, “falling snow (quana)”, “drifting snow (piqsirpoq)” or a snow drift (quiumqsuq)”.

358. Rice in China and bread in the west?

359. However, the point of the story remains valid: each language reflects its users’ particular needs and concerns. The Haunoo in the Philippines do not need to know about snow, but as farmers they need to know about earth, and their language enables them to distinguish between 10 basic and 30 derivative types of soil.

360. Many languages reflect a detailed knowledge of the natural world: weather, animals, plants--- particularly their medical uses. If such languages are lost, the knowledge embedded in them may be lost too.

361. (4) Windows on the world Each language has its own window on the world.

362. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis People do not perceive the world freely but rather they do so through language, a filtering structure which will distort the reality and thus influence and control their thought.

363. This hypothesis has two major thrusts: Linguistic Determinism: language determines thought Linguistic Relativity: there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages

364. Summery of the hypothesis: 1) one’s thinking is completely determined by his native language because one cannot but perceive the world in terms of the categories and distinctions encoded in the language.

365. 2) the categories and distinctions encoded in one language system are unique to that system and incommensurable with those of other systems.

366. “If Aristotle had spoken Chinese, his logic would have been different.”

367. ▲ the language of the Hopi Indians has many verb forms than most European languages, which allow its speakers to differentiate much more intricately between different kinds of past, present and future.

368. The emphasis on time (past, present, and future) and the objectification of time in terms of space (before and after) predisposes the westerners to history, records, diaries, clocks, and calendars.

369. ▲ In Algonquian languages spoken in parts of Canada, such as Cree and Innu, the first person is not “I” or “we”, but “you”, reflecting their view of the importance of the individual vis-à-vis the group.

370. ▲ The link betw. daily Chinese language and the past is strengthened by a lack of tenses. In Chinese, there is no verb change depending on time. E.g. 邓小平是个好领导 胡锦涛是个好领导

371. Things that in English language are extinct remain alive in Chinese. Without the separation in language or thought betw. What ‘was’ and what ‘is’, China’s past seems to merge into its present.

372. Until the last century, this connection was strengthened by a traditional dating system that provided no simple way to gauge relative historical periods. Dates were defined by the Emperr’s reign: AD 1817 was Jiaqing 18; Ad 965 was Taizu 5; there was nothing to indicate that one of

373. the past seemed to merge into cycles that lacked a clear timeline mapping stages in development or an origin where t = 0.

374. About 100 years ago, there was a move to abolish character. There was a brief reform movement and the government was trying to modernize the country. The writing system was seen as archaic, something that was holding China back, so they proposed the idea of replacing characters with a phonetic representation.

375. The characters for China, 中国, would be replaced by a spelling of its sound: ‘zhong guo’. But a professor at Beijing University wrote a short, nonsensical but intelligible story in response. It told of a poet, called Gentleman Shi, who lived in a stone house and became addicted to eating lions.

376. He went in search of them and found ten in a market, but realized that they were all dead when he got home. The professor published his story without any comment. Transcribed into the phonetics that the government had suggested:

377. 施氏食狮史 石室诗士施氏, 嗜食狮, 誓食十狮。氏时时适 市视狮。十时，氏适市，适十狮适市。是 时，氏视是十狮，恃十石矢势，似时十狮 逝世。氏拾是十狮尸适石室，石室湿，似 侍试拭石室，石室拭，氏始试食是十狮尸， 是时，氏始识事是事实。 试释是事

378. Became: shi shi shi shi shi Shi shi shi shi shi shi, shi shi shi, shi shi shi shi. Shi shi shi shi shi shi shi. Shi shi, shi shi shi, si shi his shi shi. Shi shi, shi shi shi shi, shi shi shi shi shi, shi shi shi shi shi. Shi shi shi shi shi shi shi shi shi shi shi. Shi shi shi sshi shi, shi shi, shi shi shi……

379. The professor’s point was clear: like it or not, Chinese can’t be reduced to an alphabet. The characters are here to stay.

380. Different perceptions about “Christmas” in OZ and in Europe / America

381. In fact, anyone who speaks more than one language knows that some terms are untranslatable, which is why English- speakers borrow words and phrases such as Mahjiong.

382. The idea that different languages reflect different views of the world was developed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf in the 1930s. Their hypothesis: different languages embody different world views; this predisposes their speakers towards different ways of thought.

383. (5) sharper minds, better understanding For most of humanity most of the time, bi- or multilingualism has been the natural state of affairs. Children can easily pick up several languages if they are exposed to them early.

384. Indeed, there is evidence that people who speak more than one language are mentally more flexible and creative than monoglots. They have wider grammars. Swedish children learn English in primary school, which seems to do no harm to their Swedish.

385. Conclusion: The demise of any language is a loss for all mankind, but most of all a loss for its speakers. As one Navjo elder told his grandson:

386. If you don’t breathe, There is no air. If you don’t walk, There is no earth. If you don’t speak, There is no world.

387. If a child learns only the non-Indian way of life, you have lost your child.

388. Part 2. Language, Thought, and Culture 1. some statements about these three: ★ languages primarily reflect rather than create socio-cultural regularities in values and orientations.

389. ★ languages throughout the world share a far larger number of structural universals than has been recognized.

390. ★ we are fascinated by the process of ongoing and interwined conversation and interaction. In these processes languages and societal behaviour are equal partners rather than one or the other of them being “boss” and “giving orders” to the other.

391. ★ language is essentially rooted in the reality of the culture, the tribal life and customs of the people, and … it cannot be explained without constant reference to these broader contexts of verbal utterance.

392. ★ an utterance becomes only intelligible when it is placed within its context of situation.

393. ★ the study of any language spoken by a people who live under conditions different from our own and possess a different culture must be carried out in conjunction with a study of their culture and of their environment.

394. ★ Implication for language teachers: the language learner should not only study the cultural context ( language AND culture) but also that he should be made aware of the interaction between language and culture ( language IN culture, culture IN language).

395. 2. language, thought, and culture

396. ★ No discussion about cultural variables in second language acquisition is complete without some treatment of the relationship between language and thought. Cognitive development and linguistic development go hand in hand, each interacting with and shaping the other. Words shape our lives.

397. Examples: 1) the advertising world is a prime example of the use of language to shape, persuade, and dissuade.

398. Unsurpassed, ultimate, supercool, the right choice, etc.

399. 2) a foreigner in the U.S.A. once remarked that in America, there are no ‘small eggs, only medium, large, extra large, jumbo, etc.( big country, big people, big houses, big language … )

400. 3) euphemisms abound in different cultures where certain thoughts are taboo or certain words connote something less than desirable.

401. Sanitary engineers; rest rooms (toilets), substandard dwellings (slums), collateral damage ( 附带损失 ), vertically-challenged.

402. 4) verbal labels can shape the way we store events for later recall. (see P197: principles of language learning and teaching)

403. 5) words are not the only linguistic category affecting thought. The way a sentence is structured will affect nuances (slight difference) of meaning. (in an automobile accident)

404. The policeman asks a witness: Did you see the broken headlight? or Did you see a broken headlight? Did you see any people watching the accident? or Did you see some people watching the accident?

405. 6) culture is an integral part of the interaction between language and thought. Conversational discourse styles, for example: directness; tag questions.

406. 3. language and society 1) the language a person uses often reveals his social, educational and regional background;

407. 2) there seems to be certain social norms as to which variety of language is to be used on what occasions;

408. If an individual breaks the rules of a social act by saying something unexpected he can cause confusion or annoyance in the speech partner in the episode. Example:

409. A waves his hand cheerily: A: How are you? B: How am I in regard to what? My health, my finances, my school work, my peace of mind, my …? A: (red in the face and suddenly out of control) Look! I was just trying to be polite. Frankly, I don’t give a damn how you are.”

410. 3) there is the problem of attitude towards different dialects or unofficial languages in a community.

411. Session 4: China English Studies 1. related concepts: (1) pidgin(s) and creole(s)

412. Until very recently, pidgins and creoles were regarded, especially by non-linguists, as inferior, ‘bad’ languages (and often not as ‘languages’ at all). In the later years of the twentieth century, linguists working in the field of second-language acquisition

413. began to realize what could be discovered about first and second-language learning from the way pidgins and creoles developed; meanwhile linguists working in the field of sociolinguistics began to appreciate the extent to which these languages reflect and promote the lifestyles of their speakers.

414. A pidgin is a language with no native speakers: it is no one’s first language but is a contact language. That is, it is the product of a multilingual situation in which those who wish to communicate must find or improvise a simple language system that will enable them to do so.

415. In contrast to a pidgin, a creole, is often defined as a pidgin that has become the first language of a new generation of speakers. A creole, therefore, is a ‘normal’ language in almost every sense.

416. A pidgin arises in the first place to fulfill restricted communication needs between people who do not share a common language. This happened in the past mainly (though not exclusively) as a result of European expansion into Africa and Asia during the colonial period, with pidgins arising as a result of contact

417. between speakers of a ‘dominant’ European language and speakers of mutually unintelligible indigenous African and Asian languages.

418. A creole arises when the children of pidgin speakers use their parents’ pidgin language as the mother tongue. In other words, a creole has native speakers. The simple structure of the pidgin is the starting point for the creole,

419. but now that it is being acquired as a first language, its vocabulary expands and its grammar increases in complexity so that it is capable of expressing the entire human experience of its mother-tongue speakers.

420. Hypotheses of the origin of a pidgin

421. ※ a Chinese corruption of the English word ‘business’ as in gospidgin man (‘god- business-man’) i.e. priest;

422. ※ a Chinese corruption of the Portuguese word ‘ocupacao (business)’;

423. ※ from the Hebrew word ‘pdjom’ (meaning ‘barter’, ‘exchange’, ‘trade’)

424. ※ from the word ‘pidian’ (meaning people) in Yago, s South American Indian language spoken in an area colonised by Britain;

425. ※ from the two Chinese characters ‘pei’ and ‘ts’in’, meaning paying money’.

426. (2) World English Global English International English

427. World English ★ 1920s; all English: standard and non- standard, mother-tongue and other-tongue, dialect, pidgin, creole, lingua franca varieties ★ shorthand for English as a world language; a superordinate term for Aussie English, American E., British E., Irish E. and the like.

428. International English 1930s; more popular since 1980s; multinational use of English more related to language teaching and learning: TESL; TEFL; TEIL

429. Global English Mid 1990s; Vast use of English and links the language with socio-economic globalization

430. Sometimes, the three terms refer to the same thing: English is spreading at an incredibly fast speed.

431. 2. English as a global language English has for some time been learned world-wide, and is now spoken in every country of the globe. Some 380 million people speak it as their first language and perhaps two-thirds as many again as their second. A billion are learning it, about

432. a third of the world’s population are in some sense exposed to it, and by 2050, it is predicted that half the world will be more or less proficient in it. It is the language of globalization: of international business, politics, and diplomacy. It is the language of computers and the Internet.

433. Truly, the tongue spoken in the 14th century only by the “low people” of England has come a long way.

434. What is globalization?

435. Globalisation has been defined by Giddens (1990:64) as “the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa”.

436. This phenomenon can be perceived in different ways, some tracing it back to the 15th century when Europeans began to map and colonize the world; others attribute to it a much more recent history, seeing it as an extension of the American imperialism that has characterized international relations over the past three decades;

437. yet others hold a very different, more balanced view, rejecting the idea that globalisation is a question of Western dominance over “the rest”.

438. Globalisation can be thought of as the broadening, speeding up, strengthening, and growing impact of worldwide interconnectedness. Others also, like Yano (2001) and Salverda (2002), argue that globalisation is crucially linked with the rise of the English language.

439. English in Europe the Erasmus scheme has helped to promote English. It is the only lingua franca of the large numbers of foreign students studying in different countries and more and more universities are providing courses in English to cater for them. English has permeated into almost every area of life in the northern countries, notably Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland and the Netherlands.

440. In the south of Europe, in the Romance cultures, English is also spreading, even if, in countries like Spain and Italy, it is invariably more divergent from the British variety than that of the countries of the north. Regardless of national pride and occasionally hostile feelings towards English, this language is progressively binding Europe together in a way similar to that of Latin many centuries earlier.

441. “If I want to speak to a French person, I have to speak in English,” says one 11- year old German child (McArthur: 2003).

442. 41% of the population can speak English as a second language, while 75% of the children are learning English in school, figures that are certainly higher now since the entry of the East European countries in 2004.

443. Furthermore, a survey showed that 62% of the Irish, 66% of the French, 70% of the British, 76% of the Italians and 82% of the Dutch thought that everyone should be able to speak English.

444. English in Asia The number of English users has reached 350m, which is the combined population of the United States, Britain and Canada. It is estimated that the proportion of English users in non-English speaking countries and English speaking countries is 2-4:1.

445. This indicates that English, as a lingua franca, is playing an increasingly important role in every corner of the world and this is taking place in many sectors of society. Philippson (1992) employs the term “linguistic imperialism” to describe this phenomenon.

446. However, the former colonies have no wish to be recolonized; on the contrary, the reverse is happening. As he quotes one Filippino poet as saying, speaking for all Asian speakers of English : “English is now our language. We have, too, colonized it.” It is clear that English is now no longer the exclusive property of its native speakers.

447. Kachru (1985)’s three concentric circles of English: the Inner Circle, where English is the mother tongue and includes countries such as Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Britain and America;

448. the Outer Circle, which uses English as an additional institutionalized, official language, though not a mother tongue - the countries include Bangladesh, Ghana, India, Kenya, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Philippines, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe; people in these countries can use English fluently for virtually any type of communication; Saudi Arabia and several in South America.

449. the Expanding Circle, which refers to English as a foreign language, the countries being mainly China, Korea, Nepal, Russia.

451. ENL ESL EFL

452. the Inner Circle: norm-providing the Outer Circle: norm-developing the Expanding Circle: norm-dependent

453. China English studies

454. Part 1: Questions to ask: 1) Does English have a plural form? 2) Have you heard of World Englishes? 3) Have you heard of China English? Is it the same as Chinese English ( Chinglish)?

455. 4) What kind of English do you prefer? American English British English Canadian English Aussie English Indian English China English

456. 5) What kind of English do you think is standard English? American English British English Canadian English Aussie English Indian English China English

457. 6) Where do you like your foreign teachers to come from? UK USA Canada Australia Africa Asia Europe New Zealand

458. 7) Which variety of English do you want your English to sound like? American English British English Aussie English Canadian English New Zealand English China English

459. 8) Will China English should stand alongside British, American and the other world Englishes?

460. Part 2: Chinese English and China English

461. ◆ Chinese English a common phenomenon. Individual learners, in using English, translate more or less from Chinese and tend to ignore the basic grammatical structure of English. The result is a low level of intelligibility, which hampers international and intercultural communication.

462. Don’t morning three evening four! I very like Liu Dehua. Me no can do it. I yesterday with my boyfriend in Mcdonald’s had a good meal.

463. ◆ China English a language which is as good a communicative tool as standard English: the pronunciation is close enough not to pose much of a problem; some syntactic and grammatical differences due to the influence of Chinese; the lexis may differ, reflecting cultural differences

464. Some Chinese words have found their way into English: kowtow, mahjong, typhoon, yin-yang school, paper tiger, vegetable basket project, two-way choice system, three representatives

465. It does not matter whether a cat is black or white, so long as it catches mice. The mountains are high, and the emperor is far away. It takes more than one cold day for the river to freeze over. The well need not interfere with river water.

466. Face a: I lost a lot of face by being unable to answer this question. b: They started quarrelling. I didn’t know where to hide my face. c: How can you do that to me? I really got no face. d: You must go to his son’s wedding dinner to give him face.

467. Li Wenzhong(1993) defined China English as a variety of English whose vocabulary, sentences and discourse have Chinese characteristics. It is based on standard English, and has been adapted to express characteristics of Chinese culture in terms of phonetic translation, borrowing and meaning reproduction.

468. Part 3: Why use China English as a standard? Reason 1: English in China China boasts the largest English-learning population in the world; it seems there are more people learning to speak English in China than there are English speakers in the whole of the U.S.A.

469. 200 million children (20% of the total in the world); 13 million uni students are learning English; Shanghai, Beijing start at 6; courses such as maths, physics and chemistry in English in Guangdong; English in kindergartens. ( Nainai, I love you)

470. WTO; 2008 Olympics; 2010 World Fair, etc, making English learning more crazy

471. So many people learning; impossible to be native-like → why not China English if it’s intelligible? The study of China English could both further enrich general English vocabulary and introduce to other countries unique features of the culture so that China will be better understood.

472. Reason 2: British English tends to be the variety of English taught in many European schools and universities simply because that it is more useful and closer to them than American English. Similarly, other countries in Asia may find that China English is more useful to them politically, economically and culturally than other varieties, as it reflects more accurately their needs both culturally and in business. (culture and language)

473. Reason 3: We can maintain our identity while speaking our variety of English. It’s impossible to isolate our identity from the language we speak. Tommy Koh (senior minister in the Singapore government): When I speak English I want the world to know I’m a Singaporean!!!”

474. China English might become the largest variety of World Englishes!!!!!!