1. Chapter 6 New Directions in Thought and Culture in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Chapter 6 New Directions in Thought and Culture in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

2. The Scientific Revolution Reformation + Encounters with the New World = Uncertainties about existing “knowledge”. Science: called “natural philosophy”; “new science” Scientist: term not coined until 1830s Challenged Scholasticism, Aristotelianism Also brought new wave of superstition, anxiety and fear. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

3. The Scientific Revolution Became the standard for assessing the validity of knowledge in the West. Not a rapid movement, and only involved a few hundred people, and some artisans and craftsmen. Many false starts and incorrect assumptions. Turned science into a method of inquiry and research. Biology (“natural history”, chemistry, medicine. Astronomy was most influential. Why?

4. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) Polish priest & astronomer. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543). Intended to help church better understand the calendar to calculate the correct date for Easter. Heliocentric versus geocentric view of the solar system. Challenged Ptolemaic/Aristotelian models in use since antiquity. Copernican system no more accurate than Ptolemaic—important as a new paradigm—slow to gain ground. Was actually looking for more mathematical accuracy. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

5. Copernican Heliocentric Theory

6. Tyco Brahe (1546–1601) (tee-koh brah) Danish astronomer, Lutheran, nobleman. Actually rejected Copernican view; advocated for geocentrism! Created scientific instruments that made extensive naked-eye observations. Recorded vast body of astronomical data, later drawn on by Kepler. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

7. Tychonian System

8. The moon and sun are revolving around the Earth, while Mars, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, and Mercury revolve around the sun. Around it is a sphere of stars, which is fixed. The orbits are also perfectly round.

9. Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) German astronomer, Brahe’s assistant. Advocated Copernican view. Figured out planets move in elliptical, not circular, orbits. Published “The New Astronomy” in 1609. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

10. Kepler’s Theory

11. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

12. Kepler’s Planetary Motion

13. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) Italian mathematician & natural philosopher Broke ground using telescope—found heavens much more complex than previously understood. Discovered sun spots, moons around Jupiter. Became high-profile Copernican advocate. Articulated concept of a universe governed by mathematical laws. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

14. Galileo Galilei 1564-1642 Worked in the court of the Grand Duke of Tuscany (a Medici). Real, lasting things are mathematically measurable.

15. Isaac Newton (1642–1727) Discovered laws of gravity—all physical objects in the universe move through mutual attraction (gravity); explained planetary orbits. How did planets move in an orderly fashion? Every object affects every other object through gravity. Explained gravity mathematically; did not explain the actual nature of gravity. Principia Mathematica (1687). Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

16. Sir Isaac Newton’s experiments with light passing through a prism. Newton strongly advocated for empirical research and observation.

17. Impact on Philosophy Scientific revolution  major reexamination of Western philosophy. Nature as mechanism—clock metaphor; God as clockmaker. Removed mystery of the world and idea of divine purpose in nature. Purpose of studying nature changes: Search for symbolic/sacramental meaning  search for usefulness/utility Path to salvation  path to human physical improvement Natural knowledge could strengthen monarchies. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

18. Francis Bacon (1561–1626) English lawyer, government official, historian, essayist. Considered father of empiricism, scientific experimentation. Empirical induction: From the specific to the general. Real accomplishment was setting an intellectual tone conducive to scientific inquiry. Attacked scholastic adherence to intellectual authorities of the past. One of the first European writers to champion innovation and change as goals contributing to human improvement. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

20. René Descartes (1596–1650) Gifted mathematician, inventor of analytic geometry Most important contribution: scientific method relying more on deduction (deriving specific facts from general principles) than empiricism Discourse on Method (1637)—rejection of scholastic philosophy and education in favor of mathematical models; rejection of all intellectual authority except his own reason. Concluded (God-given) human reason was sufficient to comprehend the world. Divided world into two categories: mind (thinking) & body (extension) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

21. René Descartes (1596–1650) Mind and matter: “I think, therefore I am”

22. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) Most original political philosopher of 17th c. Enthusiastic supporter of New Science Turmoil of English Civil War motivated his Leviathan (1651) Leviathan: rigorous philosophical justification for absolutist government Humans not basically social, but basically self- centered We need strong government to keep us in line State of nature is a state of war; life in this state is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

24. John Locke (1632–1704) Most influential philosophical and political thinker of the 17th c. Contrast with Hobbes First Treatise of Government: argued against patriarchal models of government Second Treatise of Government: government as necessarily responsible for and responsive to the governed Humans basically creatures of reason and goodwill Letter Concerning Toleration (1689): argument for religious toleration Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): described human mind at birth as a “blank slate” with content to be determined by sensory experience—reformist view, rejects Christian concept of original sin Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

25. John Locke’s works were hugely influential later in the American Revolution, especially the idea of government’s duty to protect our natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

26. The Rise of Academic Societies The New Science threatened vested academic interests and was slow to gain ground in universities. Heard and published papers, discussed experiments, organized libraries, networking, fostered culture for civility, dialogue and debate free from religion and politics. Establishment of “institutions of sharing”: Royal Society of London (1660) Academy of Experiments (Florence, 1657) French Academy of Science (1666) Berlin Academy of Science (1700) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

27. French Academy of Sciences presenting to Louis XIV.

28. Women in the Scientific Revolution Generally excluded from the institutions of European intellectual life. Queen Christina of Sweden (r. 1623–1654): brought Descartes to Stockholm to design regulations for a new science academy Margaret Cavendish (1623–1673) Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy (1666) Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1668) Maria Winkelmann—accomplished German astronomer, excluded from Berlin Academy Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

29. Queen Christina of Sweden with Rene Descartes in 1649

30. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

31. New Science and Religion Three major issues: Certain scientific theories and discoveries conflicted with Scripture Who resolves such disputes: religious authorities or natural philosophers? New science’s apparent replacement of spiritually significant universe with purely material one. Representative incident: Roman Catholic authorities condemn Galileo, 1633—under house arrest for last nine years of his life. The Church saw Galileo’s views as his own personal interpretation of Scripture- which was against the Council of Trent. Catholic Inquisition places Copernicus’s On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres on Index of Prohibited Books, 1616. Roman Catholic Church formally admits errors of biblical interpretation in Galileo’s case, 1992. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

33. Attempts to Reconcile Reason and Faith Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), French mathematician Opposed both dogmatism and skepticism Jansenist; believed in total sinfulness of human nature Also believed in existence of a loving God Erroneous belief in God is a safer bet than erroneous unbelief Francis Bacon Two books of divine revelation: the Bible and nature. Since both “books” share the same author, they must be compatible. Most natural philosophers were religious. Faith in a rational God  faith in rationality of humans  liberation from the past Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

34. Attempts to Reconcile Reason and Faith Humans are meant to improve the world. Economics: technological and economic innovation seen as part of a divine plan—man is to understand world and then put it into productive rational use (John Ray) How well has this occurred? What is considered “improvement” or “progress”? Religious justification for process of economic “improvement” that would happen in he 18 th century in W. Europe.

35. Continuing Superstition Belief in magic and the occult persisted through the end of the 17th c. Witch hunts: 70,000–100,000 put to death, 1400–1700; 80% women Mostly in Germany- why? Maleficium: black or harmful magic Believed witches harmed their neighbors, attended sabbats, cannibalized children, and could fly. Village origins: “cunning” or “simple” folk helped people deal with problems. Having magic powers made someone important. Most vulnerable people in society often claimed to have such powers. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

36. Continuing Superstition Influence of the clergy: “simple” or cunning folk were spiritual authorities; competed with spiritual authority of the church. Powers are not innate to humans- they must come from God or the devil. Political significance: Princes tried to exert authority over their villages and change “customary” laws. Way to show absolute political and spiritual authority over a village

37. Who were the witches? 80% were women, mostly single over 40. Widows, midwives, and herbal healers were specifically targeted. Misogyny Conspiracy: hatred of women at a time when women were starting to gain some freedoms. Sexual fear of strong women

38. End of the witch hunts Emergence of a more scientific world view. Advances in medicine, rise of insurance companies and lawyers made people feel more secure against physical and natural calamities. Witch hunts got out of hand… imagine that. Threat of anarchy

39. Three Witches Burned Alive in Baden, Germany Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

40. Midwives helping a woman during childbirth.

41. Baroque Art 17th c. painting, sculpture, architecture. Subjects depicted in naturalistic rather than idealized manner. Theatrical, emotional. Popular with Catholics because it helped portray “religious truths” Associated with absolutist politics (Louis XIV) Michelangelo Caravaggio (1573–1610) Peter Paul Rubens Gianlorenzo Bernini Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.