1. 1 Objectives Definitions – species, habitat, and biodiversity Levels of biodiversity – habitat, species, and genetic Measurement of biodiversity by sampling; taking of random samples Measurement of species richness and species evenness in a habitat Simpson’s Index of Biodiversity (D) – calculation of biodiversity using the formula; significance of high and low values of D Current estimates of global biodiversity Objectives Definitions – species, habitat, and biodiversity Levels of biodiversity – habitat, species, and genetic Measurement of biodiversity by sampling; taking of random samples Measurement of species richness and species evenness in a habitat Simpson’s Index of Biodiversity (D) – calculation of biodiversity using the formula; significance of high and low values of D Current estimates of global biodiversity AS OCR Biology Unit F212 Module 3 2.3.1 Biodiversity 2.3.4 Maintaining Biodiversity AS OCR Biology Unit F212 Module 3 2.3.1 Biodiversity 2.3.4 Maintaining Biodiversity 2.3.1 Biodiversity

2. 2 Definitions Species Group of similar organisms (i.e. with similar morphology) which are capable of interbreeding (mating) to produce fertile offspring (i.e. offspring that can breed to give rise to more offspring) and are reproductively isolated from other species Habitat The environment in which a particular organism (species) lives – e.g earthworm - soil; fish -pond. Organisms from a single species may live in a number of different habitats Organisms are adapted to their habitat. It includes the abiotic (physical) factors (e.g. soil, temperature, water) and biotic (living) factors (e.g. availability of food, presence of other organisms; predators) Biodiversity (biological variety) The varietyof life forms (the different species of organisms) within a given ecosystem, biome, or the world. An area with many different species has a higher biodiversity than one with few species. Identified traditionally at three levels habitat, species, and genetic

3. 3 Genetic Diversity - i.e. the variation of alleles within a species (or a population of species). Genetic variation between individuals belonging to the same species A number of genes are the same in different species – similar fundamental biochemistry and cell structures – e.g. respiration – requires same enzymes Habitat Diversity - i.e. the range of habitats in which different species live Species Diversity - i.e. the number of different species and the abundance of each species in an ecosystem. Differences in species (e.g. structural (tree and an ant; functional – bacteria that cause decay and those that digest food))

4. 4 Species Richness and Species Evenness The biodiversity in a particular area is influenced by two factors – species richness i.e. the number of species found in a habitat - species evenness. i.e. the relative numbers or abundance of individuals in each species Species Richness (number of different species in an area) Number of different species per sample (in an area) is a measure of richness - the more species present in a sample, the greater the species richness. Measured by taking random samples of a habitat and counting the number of different species Species richness on its own takes no account of the number of individuals of each species present. - it gives as much weight to those species which have very few individuals as to those which have many individuals. Thus, one daisy has as much influence on the richness of an area as 1000 buttercups.

5. 5 Species Evenness (relative abundance of each species in an area) Evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of each species in an area. The more similar the population size of each species, the greater the species evenness. It is measured by taking random samples of a habitat, and counting the number of individuals of each different species. Abundance in plants can be measured as percentage cover The greater the species richness and species evenness in an area, the higher the biodiversity The diversity of species in a habitat is an indicator of environmental conditions and conservation status

6. 6 Sample sites - two different fields (habitats) of wildflowers Field 1Field 2 Daisies30020 Dandelions33549 Buttercups365931 TOTAL1000 In the second sample, most of the individuals are buttercups, with only a few daisies and dandelions present. Sample 2 is therefore considered to be less diverse than sample 1. Example illustrating richness and evenness Species evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of each species in a habitat and counting Measured by taking random samples of the habitat and counting the numbers of each individual species In field 1 the individual organisms are more evenly distributed between the three different species – it has greater species evenness Species richness is the number of different species in a habitat. The higher the number of species the greater the species richness Measured by taking random samples of a habitat and counting the number of different species Both sampling sites(fields) have the same species richness (3 species) and the same total number of individuals (1000).

7. 7 Species richness and evenness can be estimated by sampling a habitat. As species richness and evenness increase, so diversity increases. Simpson's Index of Diversity (D) is a measure of biodiversity which takes into account both richness and evenness. To calculate Simpson's Index (D) for a particular area, the area must first be sampled randomly (random sampling). For example, the diversity of the ground flora in a woodland, might be tested by sampling random quadrats. The number of plant species within each quadrat, as well as the number of individuals of each species in the samples is noted. There is no necessity to be able to identify all the species, provided they can be distinguished from each other. Random samples – to avoid bias Divide sampling site (e.g. field) into a grid and use a random number generator to select coordinates for sampling Sampling to Measure Biodiversity – Simpson’s Index of Biodiversity

8. 8 Sampling Methods 1Choose an area to sample and sampling method (based on the species) Plants – use quadrat (a frame placed on the ground) Flying insects / insects in vegetation – sweep net (net on a pole) – chemicals to stun insects. To make fair comparison Sample randomly; same way of sweeping each time; same number of times – on each habitat. Identify, count and record Ground animals pitfall trap – small pit in the ground) Aquatic animals - netInsects (ground vegetation) A large number of traps makes results more reliable and minimises the effects of unusual results Pooter

9. 9 Line Transect A line (rope or tape) taken across a habitat Take samples along the line Record all the plants of the sampled species touching the line at set intervals along it 2Count the number of each individual species 3Repeat the process – as many times as possible 4Use results to estimate the total number of individuals and the total number of species In the habitat being studied 5When sampling different habitats and comparing them – always use the same sampling technique and same procedure – e.g. number of quadrats, number of sweeps with net, method of sweep, number of sweeps – allows fair comparison Belt Transect Involves placing a series of frame (or point) quadrats along a line at regular intervals and the organisms in each quadrat identified and their abundance A belt transect gives both distribution and abundance.

10. 10 QA group of students is investigating the diversity of millipede (small ground insects) in a habitat. They want to find out the species richness and species evenness in the area. 1Describe what is meant be species richness and species evenness 2Describe how the students could measure species evenness in the habitat Answers 1 Species richness – number of different species in an area Species evenness – a measure of the relative abundance of each species in an area 2 Take random samples from the area under investigation Use an appropriate method to capture the millipedes – e.g. a pitfall trap Count the number of different species present and the number of individuals of each species in the sample

11. 11 Named Species Between 1.5 and 1.75 million species have been estimated to be present globally by scientists. The figures are not exact – since - there is no central database of all species - there are different opinions between scientists about the classification of certain species Unnamed Species A large proportion of species on earth have not been named Many species are undiscovered – or known, but not yet named Current Estimates of Global Biodiversity

12. 12 An estimate of the total number of species is from about 5 million to 100 million – recent estimates are around 14 million. Discrepancies in the estimates are due to:  Different techniques being used to make estimates  Lack of information for some species – e.g. bacteria and insects  Variations in biodiversity in different parts of the world due to geographical factors. The greatest diversity is near the equator and it decreases towards the poles.  Large areas of tropical rainforests, the poles, and deserts not yet explored  Climate change affecting biodiversity  Continuing evolution and speciation  Many species becoming endangered or are becoming extinct  Estimates change as scientists find out new information  Do not take into account numbers of individual species or variation between or within species Therefore current estimates of global biodiversity are too low

13. 13 Calculation of D for a single quadrat sample of ground vegetation in a field or woodland would not give a reliable estimate of the diversity of the ground flora Several samples would have to be taken and the data pooled to give a better estimate of overall diversity D is always a value between ) and 1 The closer the index (D) is to 1, the greater the diversity The greater the species richness and evenness, the higher the number A community dominated by one or two species is considered to be less diverse than one in which several different species have a similar abundance. Example – Calculation of Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D) An area with a high biodiversity index More species present - each species relies on a number of others If one species is affected by some change, the others may be less affected A species dependent on the one that is affected will have others to fall back on The ecosystem (area / habitat) is more stable than one with a low biodiversity

14. 14 Species of flower Red3 White5 Blue3 Total11

15. 15

16. 16 D Barley field0.62 Wheat field0.61 Under hedge0.86 D is higher under hedge than in field - more different species than in other fields Greater species richness; more different habitats and variety of food under hedge – due to more plant varieties growing under the hedge Wheat field - mainly wheat with small number of few other species to provide food for the insects Number of insects more evenly spread under hedge than open field Use of chemicals on wheat and not on hedge vegetations – affects species richness More niches for insects under vegetation More species of plants under hedge Wild species under hedge Comparison of D for the 3 habitats

17. 17  D is always a value between 0 and 1  The closer the index is to 1, the more diverse the habitat.  The greater the species richness and evenness, the higher the number A community dominated by one or two species is considered to be less diverse than one in which several different species have a similar abundance.  No need to identify organisms to species level In an area with high biodiversity index  There are more species - each species relying on a number of others  If one species is affected by some change, the others may be less affected  A species dependent on the one that is affected will have others to fall back on  The ecosystem (area) is more stable than one with a low biodiversity

18. 18 Importance of genetic diversity in biodiversity Genetic diversity makes it possible for a species to evolve. Without genetic diversity plant and animals will not be able to adapt to changes (threats) in the environment, such as: Climate change Increase in the levels of pollution New disease Arrival of new pests Humans activity affects the genetic diversity of natural habitats – e.g: Clearing of natural vegetation – reduces size of natural habitat - reduces Population size of the species in that habitat Hunting or killing for protection Iinadvertent introduction of predators and competitors Monoculture and selective breeding reduces variation and genetic diversity of domesticated animals and plants. Leads to extinction of some varieties within a species – termed genetic erosion Reduces overall gene pool for the species Decreases genetic variation and hence the ability of the species to adapt and evolve

19. 19 Refers to the total number of species on earth – this includes Named Species 1.5 and 1.75 million species estimated globally by scientists Figure not exact – no central database of all species; different opinions between scientists about the classification of certain species Unnamed Species Large proportion of species on earth have not been named. Many species are undiscovered – or known, but not yet named Estimate of total number of species - 5 million to 100 million – recent estimates - 14 million. Discrepancies in estimates due to: Different techniques used to make estimates Lack of information for some species – e.g. bacteria and insects Variations in different parts of the world due to geographical factors. Greatest diversity is near the equator and it decreases towards the poles. Tropical rainforests, the poles, and deserts are largely unexplored – therefore current estimates of global biodiversity are too low Climate change affects biodiversity Evolution and speciation are continuing Many species endangered or are becoming extinct Tentative – estimates change as scientists find out new things; do not take into account numbers of individual species or variation between or within species. Current estimates are too low Estimates of Global Biodiversity

20. 20 2.3.4 Maintaining Biodiversity Objectives Conservation of animal and plant species – economic, ecological, ethical and aesthetic reasons Consequences of climate change on biodiversity of plants and animals – changing patterns of agriculture and spread of disease Benefits for agriculture in maintaining biodiversity of plants and animals Conservation of endangered species in situ and ex situ – advantages and disadvantages of the two approaches Role of botanic gardens in the ex situ conservation of rare plant species or extinct species in the wild – use of seed banks International co-operation in species conservation – CITES; Rio Convention on Biodiversity Environmental impact assessments – EIA’s - (including biodiversity estimates) for local authority planning decisions

21. 21 Maintaining Biodiversity – important for interdependence and survival of all living organisms Actions taken at local, national, and global levels – important for Economic Plants and animals as a source of food and drink – part of food chain Clothing & footwear – cotton (plants) & leather (animals) Drugs – morphine (analgesic) from poppies- Fuels – from biomass (ethanol, biogas) – renewable Others – wood, paper, dyes, adhesives, oils, rubber, pesticides Ecological Disruption of food chains – e.g. herringsalmon bear – loss of herring causes loss of salmon and bear population Disruption of nutrient cycles – by decomposers (worms, insects, fungi, bacteria) Loss of habitats – e.g. hedgerows Habitat destruction – e.g. deforestation leads to climate change Ethical Moral issues – not to interfere with nature; right to exist; moral responsibility – to conserve for future generations Religious & spiritual – coexistence & harmony with the natural world Aesthetic Attractive environment – leisure, tourism (economic)

22. 22 Agricultural Source of food – for humans and livestock; wider range of food sources in case of disasters (e.g. potato famine -1845 – 2 varieties of potato – destroyed by disease – caused famine) Source of plants for cross breeding – desired characteristics ) e.g. drought & disease resistance; faster growth; nutritional characteristics; tolerance to climate change, increase yield Source of natural predators to pests – e.g. frogs, birds, hedgehogs are predators of pests (e.g. snails) Pollinators – insects (bees and butterflies) Low fat; ripening at same time

23. 23 Global Climate Change & Biodiversity Most species are adapted to survive in a particular climate due to genetic diversity and variation. Threats to a species with low genetic diversity would include – climate change, increase in pollution, new diseases, new pests Changes in the climate – e.g. changes in temperature, rainfall, wind patterns – may cause the migration of species to more suitable areas, or, may cause the extinction of some. changes in the patterns by which diseases are spread, and, changes in agricultural patterns Climate change occurs naturally, but recently there is consensus that climate change is a result of the impact of human activity on the environment – e.g. global warming due to the increased emissions of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide,methane, NO, H 2 O vapour, CFC’s, deforestation) Climate change leads to Increase/decrease in the temperature of the earth The melting of polar ice caps and flooding Emergence and spread of disease Change in agricultural patterns Effects on habitats Global dimming (air pollution – soot)

24. 24 Effects on habitats Uninhabitable area becomes habitable –(and vice versa) – increase or decrease biodiversity Increase or decrease in the range of some species – range limit of Sooty Copper Butterfly has moved 60 miles north in recent decades Migration – to more suitable areas – change in species distribution – usually decrease biodiversity in areas the species migrate from, and increase biodiversity in areas they migrate to If no suitable habitat is available for a species to migrate to, or the species is a plant – which cannot migrate, or if the climate change is too fast, the species may become extinct. This decreases biodiversity – e.g. Corals die if water temperature changes by just 1 or 2 degrees

25. 25 Climate Change and the Spread of Disease Geographical range of some insects might become greater If area becomes warmer and wetter, mosquitoes (vector of malaria) may spread into the area and spread malaria Spread of mosquito increases biodiversity, but the spread of the disease could reduce biodiversity Warmer and wetter conditions encourage spread of fungal disease – could increase or decrease biodiversity Climate Change and Agricultural Patterns Changes in – temperature, rainfall, timings of seasons, frequency of flood and drought, wind patters – will affect patterns of agriculture and biodiversity Previously unsuitable land becomes suitable for agriculture (and vice versa) – increase or decrease in biodiversity Crops suitable for growing in new climate will become established – unsuitable crops will not grow – increase or decrease in biodiversity Extreme weather events (e.g. flood, drought, change in timing of seasons) may cause crop failure – disrupt food chains – reduce biodiversity Disruption of food chains and webs may occur

26. 26 Conservation & Endangered Species Conservation refers to the attempts by humans to maintain biodiversity by preserving organisms and environments that are at risk as a result of human activity Endangered Species – Definition Species (plant and animal) that are in danger of becoming extinct, unless steps are taken to prevent it – e.g. the panda, gorilla, and black rhino. The numbers are at a critical level (i.e. too low) for continued survival of the species. Extinction – when the last member of a species dies Some species have become extinct – mammoth, dodo, sabre-toothed tiger The survival of species can be threatened for a number of reasons – including: Climate change New predators being introduced Destruction of habitats (e.g. by logging; road building) – destroys food sources and shelter Hunting Competition for food, shelter, etc. Pollutants Poaching Killed for food Killing to prevent damage to farmland and settlements Low population

27. 27 E.g. Whales Endangered, in danger of extinction. main causes of whale deaths include Entanglement in fishing nets and drowning Pollutants in the sea Colliding with ships during migration Climate change affecting food sources Culling and hunting Money can be made from whales Live whales– as a tourist attraction Dead whales– food, oil, making cosmetics (using blubber) Endangered species can be protected from extinction by Education – raising awareness Breeding animals in captivity (e.g. zoos) and returning to natural habitat to create new population Protecting (conserving) natural habitats Creating artificial ecosystems (e.g. zoos, aquariums) for the species to live in Legally protecting endangered species – prevent trapping and captivity Prohibiting hunting of legally protected species – permits to hunt issued to certain people

28. 28 In situ Conservation Involves protecting species in their natural habitat – methods include: Protected areas – national parks; nature reserves - areas are protected from developments (industrial, urban) and farming Control or prevention of species that threaten biodiversity - e.g. grey squirrels (not native) compete with native red squirrel, causing a decline in red squirrel population. Protection of habitats - e.g. conserving wetlands, by controlling water levels; coppicing (trimming trees) to conserve woodlands – allows organisms to live continuously in their natural habitat Restoration of damaged areas – e.g. a coastline polluted by an oil spill. Promoting particular species – by protecting food sources or nesting sites Legal protection for endangered species – prevent hunting, logging; countries may not agree Minimise human impact on the natural environment Advantages All required conditions already present; no special provisions required – well adapted Both species and habitat are conserved; less disruptive; chance of population recovery is greater Disadvantages Difficult to control – poaching, predators, climate change Species not accepted by other members of the species already present Conservation – in situ (“on site”)

29. 29 Conservation parks/nature reserves /SSSI’s Choosing of reserve or park How many species represented; prevailing environmental conditions Adequacy – is the area large enough to provide for long-term survival Representativeness - Is there a full range of diversity within each species and set of environmental conditions Advantages of designating an area; Conservation of plants and animals in their natural environment Permanent protection of biodiversity and ecosystems Protects elements of natural and cultural heritage Facilitates management of designated area – ensuring ecological integrity Ecologically sustainable land use and associated economic benefits Facilitates scientific research Secure environmental future Enjoyment of natural environment Reserve should meet the needs of indigenous people (hunting; religious; spiritual) – conflict may arise if not considered protected animals raiding crops continued hunting of protected species for food illegal harvesting of timber and other plant products tourists feeding protected animals or leaving litter

30. 30 Involves removing part of the population from a threatened habitat, and placing it in a new location. Used as a last resort Relocation of species to safer areas Breeding species in captivity and reintroducing them into the wild – carried out in animal sanctuaries, and zoos. Botanic gardens – controlled environments to conserve rare plants and reintroduce them into the wild. Seed (sperm) banks – frozen (or dried) seeds are stored in seed banks for long periods of time, without losing their fertility. Provides a useful source of seeds if natural reserves are destroyed – in famine conditions. Advantages (reverse arguments for in the wild) Protect individual animals or plants in a controlled environment – protected from factors causing endangerment Predation and hunting can be monitored and managed easily; monitor health; treat disease; incubate eggs artificially; hand rear young – reduce mortality; manipulate breeding (hormones, artificial insemination, artificial selection); protect from predation, hunters; reduce competition between individuals / species Used to reintroduce species that have migrated to other areas Sperm (frozen) from one male – used to fertilise a large number of females; easy transport; maintains genetic diversity – by importing sperm from another population Study rare biological organisms at close range Ex situ (“off site”) Conservation

31. 31 Disadvantages Only a small number of individuals can be catered for. Difficult and expensive to create and sustain the right environment. Less successful than in situ methods – many species do not breed successfully in captivity. Species cannot adapt when introduced to their natural habitat Problems of acceptance of introduced member by existing members Choose individuals from different areas – maintains / increases genetic variation (gene pool) Choose unrelated individuals - reduces risk of inbreeding between related individuals Less risk of losing all individuals due to environmental change (e.g. disease) House in separate centres – less risk of losing all individuals due to natural disasters, human action Select higher proportion of females Preserving of species –long term measures Legal protection Ban cause of endangerment Protected areas – sanctuaries, reserves – provide breeding sites Prevent habitat destruction Monitoring – tagging Education – to public on importance of the species Sperm and egg banks; seed banks

32. 32 Inbreeding depression is a disadvantage in captive breeding - happens when closely related individuals – e.g. a brother and a sister, mate. Offspring are much less likely to survive and reproduce successfully – due to an increased chance of inheriting harmful recessive alleles from both parents – an offspring with homozygous recessive alleles may lack vital gene products and be less likely to survive and reproduce successfully. Zoos keep detailed records detailing the family trees of all their animals – allowing them to ensure that individuals that mate are as distantly related as possible. Zoos often swap animals with other zoos to promote outbreeding, to maintain genetic diversity of the captive populations Success of release of bred species  Healthy before release  Adequate food supply  Protected reserve  Method to monitor population  Raise public awareness  Prepare animals for survival in the wild  Gradual introduction – e.g. via semi-wild habitat

33. 33 Drying and freezing seeds for seed banks Inhibits germination Slows down enzymes and rate of decay - prolongs seed survival Drying reduces damage by freezing effect Tested regularly (every 5 years)– to check seed viability/germination success Allows new seeds to be produced -stored seeds may need replacing due to decay/death Seed banks and zoos - maintain endangered species in a protected environment – giving protection from predators/poachers Captive breeding programmes are used to reintroduce species into wild; enable scientific research and education. Seed banks (and sperm banks) occupy little space and require little attention

34. 34 CITES (Commission on International Trade in Endangered Species) A number of Governments are signatories to a world-wide programme to protect endangered species by conservation of biological diversity – addresses illegal poaching and illegal trade in endangered species. CITES, agreed in 1973. Some countries do not support conservation programmes. Aims of CITES:  International cooperation in regulating trade and monitoring international trade in selected species of plants and animals  Member countries agree to make it illegal to kill endangered species  Limiting trade in endangered species through licensing  Illegal to trade in products made form endangered species Black rhino - placed on Appendix 1 of CITES. Since then, their number have stabilised and even increased. Endangered due to poaching ; destruction of Habitat; shot to protect farmland and settlements; killed for meat and horn Signatory countries agree – illegal to kill/poach rhino Ban on trade in horns/hide Increased cooperation between countries Permits/licences issued to certain people Education; raising awareness Monitor habitats and species on a daily basis (wardens) Legal action (imprisonment, fines, etc)

35. 35  Develop international strategies on the conservation of biodiversity  Encourage and implement use of animal and plant resources in a sustainable way  Conservation is the responsibility of each individual – as part of international law  Guidance to governments on how to conserve biodiversity  Shared access to genetic resources  Sharing of benefits arising out of the use of genetic resources  Sharing and transfer of scientific knowledge and technologies Conservation Programmes – Benefits Protecting the human food supply – by maintaining the genetic variety of crops, animals and plants Stabilising ecosystems by ensuring minimal damage to food chains and habitats Studying and identifying plants which might be useful to develop medicines to treat diseases Protecting the culture of indigenous people living in threatened habitats such as the Amazonian rainforest Wild disease resistant crop variety can be bred with a non-resistant variety to produce resistant varieties – without conservation the wild type may be lost. Whaling commission (1946) - regulates whaling industry RCBD (Rio Convention on Biological Diversity) - 1993

36. 36 Enforcement of international agreements (e.g. CITES) - problems Not all governments agree with trade policies Some governments corrupt Difficult to stop poaching and hunting in the wild Limited resources or will to police areas effectively Exported species or products may be exported under false documentation or smuggled Difficult to identify endangered species – e.g. By custom officials Whaling commission (set up in 1946) – regulates the orderly development of the whaling industry to conserve the whale population  Complete protection of certain species  Designate specified areas as whale sanctuaries  set limits on the numbers and size of whales which may be taken  Prescribe open and closed seasons and areas for whaling  Prohibit the capture of suckling calves and female whales accompanied by calves  Compilation of catch reports and other statistical and biological records

37. 37 In local planning and development it is important to assess the impact of a proposed development (e.g. shopping centre, power station) on the environment and biodiversity – otherwise, there may be destruction of environmentally sensitive habitats that are rich in biodiversity. Need to conserve species that are already protected by law EIA ensures that decision makers consider the environmental impact of development projects and how projects are to proceed. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and studies of biodiversity  To estimate biodiversity on the project site and evaluate how the development might affect biodiversity  To consider impact on wildlife  To identify possible destruction of environmentally sensitive habitats that are rich in biodiversity or where there are rare species  To legally protect particular species of animals and plants

38. 38 If the need to conserve or protect is identified – need to consider whether development should be stopped or whether other measures could be taken to protect the species – e.g. Providing other suitable (similar) habitats close to the site – e.g. Extension of mudflats on shores for the wading and migrating birds that used the habitats that were lost to development. Successful in attracting other bird species as well Species of animals and plants may be protected by law Translocation of species Laws to protect endangered species Estimate biodiversity on the development site and evaluating the effect of the development on biodiversity

39. 39 Objection to EIA studies An EIA study needs to physically investigate the habitat – this may possibly leading to the destruction of habitats and disturbance of the species in their habitats May cause more disruption than the development itself Damage to environment/ecosystem Habitats best left alone (left to nature) Rare species may be discovered – people stealing species for collectors Need to consider the following in EIA: Water resources Drainage Pollution Damage & disturbance to habitat Loss of species and loss of species diversity Loss of habitat International level Promote exchange of information, consultation and notification of any development that might affect another partner state and biological diversity Promote the notification of any grave danger that may affect biodiversity Promote arrangements for emergency responses to situations which may present a danger to biological diversity

40. 40 Genetic diversity makes it possible for a species to evolve Without genetic diversity plant and animals will not be able to adapt to changes in the environment Threats: Climate change Increase in the levels of pollution New disease Arrival of new pests Humans activity affects the genetic diversity of natural habitats. Clearing of natural vegetation – reduces size of natural habitat - reduces population size of the species in that habitat; hunting or killing for protection; inadvertent introduction of predators and competitors Reduces overall gene pool for the species Decreases genetic variation and hence the ability of the species to adapt and evolve Monoculture and selective breeding reduces variation and genetic diversity of domesticated animals and plants. Leads to extinction of some varieties within a species –termed genetic erosion Biodiversity and importance of genetic diversity