1. The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan John Bunyan (28 November 1628 – 31 August 1688) was an English Christian writer and preacher. He is the author of The Pilgrim's Progress, arguably the most famous published Christian allegory. In addition to The Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan wrote nearly sixty titles.

2.  Bunyan was born to a working-class family. He was largely self-educated.  Bunyan adopted a militant Protestantism and was himself a Christian soldier, serving in Cromwell’s Roundhead parliamentary army.  In 1660, with the return of Charles II from France and the downfall of the Commonwealth, he was imprisoned for preaching without a license.  Indeed, Restoration Puritans would have a hard time of it unless they conformed, but for Bunyan, conformity meant damnation. He spent 12 years behind bars as a prisoner of conscience and, during that time, wrote The Pilgrim’s Progress. 

3. Pilgrim’s Progress Bunyan wrote The Pilgrim's Progress in two parts, the first of which was published in London in 1678 and the second in 1684. He conceived the work during his first period of imprisonment, and probably finished it during the second. The Pilgrim's Progress is arguably one of the most widely known allegories ever written. It has been translated into more than 200 languages, and has never been out of print. Pilgrim’s Progress comprises 108,260 words and is divided into two parts.

4. The story of The Pilgrim’s Progress is as well known: Christian leaves home and the City of Destruction, where he has lived all his life, to undertake a long journey to the Celestial City. He has been inspired to take this journey by the Bible. Christian’s journey is made harder because of a burden on his back—sin, the old Adam—which he cannot get rid of until he gets to the Celestial City. On his journey, Christian discovers that the majority of mankind is sinful and destined for inevitable damnation. He undergoes various trials and ordeals, encountering the Slough of Despond (üzüntü bataklığı), the Hill of Difficulty, the Valley of Humiliation, the Valley of the Shadow of Death, and Doubting Castle.

5. Christian is accompanied on his pilgrimage by his friend Faithful to the city Vanity Fair, which is London, where Faithful is put on trial and executed as a martyr. Faithful dies and, thus, takes a shortcut to the Celestial City. Christian plods on, with his new companion, Hopeful. After many trials, the two pilgrims cross the River of Death to Mount Zion and the Celestial City. It is Hope who keeps Christian going during the most dispiriting periods of their journey. Once they arrive at their destination, their burdensome packs drop away; they are free of sin.

6. Main Character: Christian Christian is the central character of the book and the hero of the pilgrimage. Because Bunyan wrote The Pilgrim’s Progress as an allegory rather than a novel, Christian is not represented as particularly complicated or conflicted and has a simple personality. Christian represents just one profound aspect of the human experience: the search for religious truth.

7. Themes 1. Knowledge Gained Through Travel The Pilgrim’s Progress demonstrates that knowledge is gained through travel by portraying Christian and his companions learning from their mistakes on their journey. The key factor is knowledge, which must increase as the pilgrim proceeds forward. Christian never makes the same mistake twice or meets the same foe twice, because he learns from his experiences.

8. 2. The Importance of Reading The importance of reading is emphasized throughout The Pilgrim’s Progress because the pilgrims reach salvation and happiness by understanding the Bible. The pilgrims who have not read and do not understand the Bible are viewed as disappointments, who will not gain entry to the Celestial City.

9. Samuel Butler (1613-1680) He was a poet and satirist. He is remembered now chiefly for a long satirical poem entitled Hudibras. Charles II is known to have had a high opinion of Butler's great religious satire Hudibras and awarded him an annual pension of £100, although the writer still died in poverty.

10. Hudibras The work is a satirical polemic upon Roundheads, Puritans, and many of the other factions involved in the English Civil War. Published only four years after Charles II had been restored to the throne and the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell being completely over, the poem found an appreciative audience. Butler was fiercely royalist and only the parliamentarian side are singled out for ridicule. Butler is clearly influenced by Cervantes' Don Quixote. But whereas in Cervantes, the noble knight although being mocked is supposed to draw readers' sympathies, Hudibras is offered nothing but derision.

11. The epic tells the story of Sir Hudibras, a knight errant who is described dramatically and with laudatory praise that is so thickly applied as to be absurd, and the conceited and arrogant person is visible beneath. He is praised for his knowledge of logic despite appearing stupid throughout, but it is his religious fervour which is mainly attacked. His squire, Ralpho, is of a similar stamp but makes no claim to great learning, knowing all there is to know from his religion or “new-light”, as he calls it. Butler satirises the competing factions at the time of the protectorship by the constant bickering of these two principal characters whose religious opinions should unite them.

12. 18th century The Augustan Period in Literature Augustus was the founder of the Roman Empire and its first Emperor. «Our excellent and indispensable 18th century» (Matthew Arnold) Augustan literature is a style of English literature produced during the reigns of Queen Anne, King George I, and George II in the first half of the 18th century and ending in the 1740s with the deaths of Pope and Swift (1744 and 1745, respectively).

13. Similarities between the first half of the 18th century and the age of Augustus In both cases writers were largely dependent upon powerful patrons. In both cases a critical spirit dominated literature. The literature was not creative or inspirational.

14. Characteristics of the Period After William died, Anne Stuart came to the throne. Anne was reportedly immoderately stupid. With a weak ruler and the belief that true power rested in the hands of the leading ministers, the two factions of politics stepped up their opposition to each other, and Whig and Tory were at each other's throats. In order to propagate their ideologies and programmes both the parties utilised the services of literary men. And the politicians bribed the authors to join one or the other political party. The politicians took the authors into their confidence. Thus began the age of literary patronage. Consequently, most of the writers showed a strong political bias. It was, in other words, a party literature. Literature was hounoured not for itself but for the sake of the party.

15. Social and Economic Life «In this great commercial country, it is natural that a situation of much wealth should be considered as very respectable» (James Boswell) London's population exploded spectacularly. During the Restoration, it grew from around 350,000 to 600,000. By 1800, it had reached 950,000. The Enclosure Acts had destroyed lower-class farming in the countryside, and rural areas experienced painful poverty. The communities of the country poor were forced to migrate or suffer. Young people from the country often moved to London with hopes of achieving success, and this swelled the ranks of the urban poor and cheap labor for city employers. It also meant an increase in numbers of criminals, prostitutes and beggars. The fears of property crime, rape, and starvation found in Augustan literature should be kept in the context of London's growth, as well as the depopulation of the countryside.

16. COFFEE HOUSES AND LITERARY ACTIVITIES ACTIVITIES People were keenly interested in political activity. A number of clubs and coffee houses came into existence. They became the centres of fashionable and public life. The Coffee houses were dominated by either of the parties. A Whig would never go to a Tory Coffee house and Vice Versa. The Coffee houses were the haunts of prominent writers, thinkers, artists, intellectuals and politicians. They figured prominently in the writings of the day. The Coffee houses gave rise to purely literary associations, such as the famous Scribblers and Kit-cat clubs.

17. Industrial Revolution

18. How would you define industrial revolution? How can industrialization affect culture and society? What kind of demographic changes can industrial revolution create? How would industrial revolution affect education? What kind of economical changes would industrial revolution create? Would you support industrialization or not? Why?

19. The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam power and the development of machine tools. It also included the change from wood and other bio- fuels to coal. It began in Great Britain and within a few decades had spread to Western Europe and the United States.

20. Why did the Industrial Revolution begin in Great Britain? 4 main reasons: 1. Resources: Large supply of coal to power steam engines and plenty of iron to build machinery 2. New Technology: Plenty of skilled mechanics were able to produce practical inventions that paved the way for industrialization 3. Economic Conditions: Oversea colonies and their vast empire allowed them to accumulate the capital necessary 4. Political and Social Conditions: Stable government that supported economic growth and strong navy to protect its empire.

21. The Age of Enlightenment (or simply the Enlightenment or Age of Reason) was a cultural movement of intellectuals beginning in late 17th- and 18th-century Europe emphasizing reason and individualism. The Enlightenment was a revolution in human thought. Its purpose was to reform society using reason, to challenge ideas grounded in tradition and faith, and to advance knowledge through the scientific method. For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance. The Enlightenment comprised "many different paths, varying in time and geography, to the common goals of progress, of tolerance, and the removal of abuses in Church and state.

22. Egalitarianism was the buzzword of the century, and it meant the promise of fair treatment for all people, regardless of background. Citizens began to see themselves on the same level as their leaders, subject to the same shortcomings and certainly subject to criticism if so deserved. In his famous essay "What is Enlightenment?" (1784), Immanuel Kant described it simply as freedom to use one's own intelligence. The Enlightenment is the source of critical ideas, such as the centrality of freedom, democracy, and reason as primary values of society – as opposed to the divine right of kings or traditions as the ruling authority. It promoted scientific thought, skepticism, and intellectual interchange. Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts. Emphasis on learning, art and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject matter that the general public in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons could relate to.

23. Enlightenment thinkers opposed superstition and intolerance. The Scientific Revolution is closely tied to the Enlightenment, as its discoveries overturned many traditional concepts and introduced new perspectives on nature and man's place within it. The scientific revolution (based on empirical observation, and not on metaphysics or spirituality) gave the impression that the universe behaved according to universal and unchanging laws (think of Newton here). The Enlightenment flourished until about 1790– 1800, at which point the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, gave way to Romanticism.

24. Reason and Equality Rousseau, for example, began to question the idea of the divine right of Kings. In The Social Contract, he wrote that the King does not, in fact, receive his power from God, but rather from the general will of the people. This, of course, implies that "the people" can also take away that power! The Enlightenment thinkers also discussed other ideas that are the founding principles of any democracy—the idea of the importance of the individual who can reason for himself, the idea of equality under the law, and the idea of natural rights. The Enlightenment was a period of profound optimism, a sense that with science and reason—and the consequent shedding of old superstitions—human beings and human society would improve.

25. The Rise of Liberalism Liberalism first became a distinct political movement during the Age of Enlightenment, when it became popular among philosophers and economists in the Western world. Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally they support ideas such as free and fair elections, civil rights, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, free trade, and private property. Liberalism rejected the notions, common at the time, of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy, and the Divine Right of Kings. The 17th century philosopher John Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a distinct philosophical tradition. Locke argued that each man has a natural right to life, liberty and property and according to the social contract, governments must not violate these rights.

26. What Is the Difference Between the Renaissance and the Enlightenment? The Renaissance and the Enlightenment name two distinctly different periods of European history. They both heralded major changes in culture, art, philosophy, science, and mathematics. The Renaissance is associated with advances in literature, architecture, humanism, and a world economy, while the Enlightenment is associated with the scientific method, industrialization, and rationality.

27. Famous People of the Enlightenment Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) Rene Descartes was a French philosopher and mathematician. Descartes made a significant contribution to the philosophy of rationalism. Descartes' Meditations was ground-breaking because he was willing to doubt previous certainties and tried to prove their validity through logic. Later empiricists disagreed with Descartes methods, but his philosophy opened up many topics to greater discussion. “The reading of all good books is like conversation with the finest men of past centuries.” ― René Descartes “Doubt is the origin of wisdom” ― René Descartes “It is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to use it well.” ― René Descartes “I desire to live in peace and to continue the life I have begun under the motto 'to live well you must live unseen” ― René Descartes, The Principles of Philosophy “I think; therefore I am.” ― René Descartes

28. Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) Spinoza was a Jewish-Dutch philosopher. He was an influential rationalist, who saw the underlying unity in the universe. “The highest activity a human being can attain is learning for understanding, because to understand is to be free.” Baruch Spinoza “If you want the present to be different from the past, study the past.” ― Baruch Spinoza “Peace is not the absence of war, it is a virtue, a state of mind, a disposition of benevolence, confidence, justice.” ― Baruch Spinoza

29. Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) Immanuel Kant was an influential German philosopher whose 'Critique of Pure Reason' sought to unite reason with experience and move philosophy on from the debate between rationalists and empiricists. «Immaturity is the incapacity to use one's intelligence without the guidance of another.» Immanuel Kant «If man makes himself a worm he must not complain when he is trodden on.» Immanuel Kant

30. John Locke (1632 - 1704) Locke was a leading philosopher and political theorist, who had a profound impact on liberal political thought. He is credited with ideas, such as the social contract - the idea government needs to be with the consent of the governed. Locke also argued for liberty, religious tolerance and rights to life and property. Locke was an influential figure on those involved in the American and French revolutions, such as Jefferson, Madison and Voltaire. “The only defense against the world is a thorough knowledge of it.” ― John Locke “Revolt is the right of the people” ― John Locke “How long have you been holding those words in your head, hoping to use them?” ― John Locke, Lethal People

31. Sir Isaac Newton. (1642-1726) Newton made studies in mathematics, optics, physics, and astronomy. In his Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, he laid the foundations for classical mechanics, explaining law of gravity and the Laws of Motion. “Men build too many walls and not enough bridges.” ― Isaac Newton “Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who sets the planets in motion.” ― Isaac Newton “No great discovery was ever made without a bold guess.” ― Isaac Newton “What goes up must come down.” ― Isaac Newton “To myself I am only a child playing on the beach, while vast oceans of truth lie undiscovered before me” ― Isaac Newton

32. Voltaire (1694 – 1778) - French philosopher and critic. Best known for his work Candide (1762) which epitomises his satire and criticisms of social convention. Voltaire was instrumental in promoting republican ideas due to his criticism of the absolute monarchy of France. “‎Life is a shipwreck, but we must not forget to sing in the lifeboats.” ― Voltaire “Every man is guilty of all the good he did not do.” ― Voltaire “The comfort of the rich depends upon an abundant supply of the poor.” ― Voltaire

33. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Rousseau was a political philosopher who was influential in French revolution. He is widely known for his The Social Contract (1762), which sought to promote a more egalitarian form of government by consent and formed the basis of modern Republicanism. “People who know little are usually great talkers, while men who know much say little.” ― Jean-Jacques Rousseau “I prefer liberty with danger than peace with slavery.” ― Jean-Jacques Rousseau “The world of reality has its limits; the world of imagination is boundless.” ― Jean-Jacques Rousseau “Freedom is the power to choose our own chains” ― Jean-Jacques Rousseau “Why should we build our happiness on the opinions of others, when we can find it in our own hearts?” ― Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract and Discourses

34. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) One of the American Founding Fathers of the United States. He was an author, politician, diplomat, scientist and statesman. He was a key figure in the American enlightenment, which saw major breakthroughs in science and ideas of political republicanism. Franklin was an early supporter of colonial unity and the United States. “You may delay, but time will not.” ― Benjamin Franklin “We are all born ignorant, but one must work hard to remain stupid.” ― Benjamin Franklin “Justice will not be served until those who are unaffected are as outraged as those who are.” ― Benjamin Franklin “Instead of cursing the darkness, light a candle.” ― Benjamin Franklin “If everyone is thinking alike, then no one is thinking.” ― Benjamin Franklin “It is the first responsibility of every citizen to question authority.” ― Benjamin Franklin

35. Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was an American Founding Father and the principle author of The Declaration of Independence (1776). In this declaration, Jefferson laid out the fundamental principles of America, calling for equality and liberty. He also advocated ending slavery and promoting religious tolerance. “I predict future happiness for Americans, if they can prevent the government from wasting the labors of the people under the pretense of taking care of them.” ― Thomas Jefferson “Honesty is the first chapter of the book wisdom.” ― Thomas Jefferson “When the people fear the government there is tyranny, when the government fears the people there is liberty.” ― Thomas Jefferson “If a nation expects to be ignorant and free, in a state of civilization, it expects what never was and never will be.” ― Thomas Jefferson

36. American Revolution The American Revolution was a political upheaval, 1765–1783, as the Thirteen American Colonies broke from the British Empire and formed the independent nation, the United States of America. Starting in 1765 the Americans rejected the authority of Parliament to tax them without elected representation.

37. French Revolution The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799 that profoundly affected French and modern history, marking the decline of powerful monarchies and churches and the rise of democracy and nationalism

38. Literary Characteristics of the Augustan Age The political and social changes exhibiting the supremacy of good sense, rationality, sanity, and balance left an imperishable mark on the literature of the Age of Pope and Dr. Johnson.

39. Age of Prose and Reason: It is an age of prose, reason, good sense and not of poetry. A large number of practical interests arising from the new social and political conditions demanded expression not simply in looks, but in pamphlets, magazines and newspapers. Poetry was inadequate for such a task. Hence prose developed rapidly and excellently.

40. Age of Satire: The predominance of satire is an important literary characteristic of the age. Nearly every writer of the first half of the eighteenth century was used and rewarded by Whigs or Tories for satirizing their enemies and for advancing their special political interests.

41. Age of Neo-Classicism: The Age of Pope and Johnson is often called the neo-classic age. We should clearly understand the meaning of the word ―classic‖. The term ―classic‖ refers to writers of highest rank in any nation. It was first applied to the works of Greek and Roman writers like Homer and Virgil. In English literature any writer who followed the simple, noble, and inspiring method of these writers was said to have a classic style.

42. Follow Nature: Another important characteristic of the age was the belief that literature must follow nature. By ―nature‖ the Augustans meant to copy man and manners of society.

43. Town and City Life as a Theme of Literature: Another feature of the literature of the age is that it has a limited theme. It is a literature of the town and the fashionable upper circles of the city of London.

44. THE AUGUSTAN POETRY As we have seen that the Augustan poetry was the product of good sense, reason, and sanity. Form was more important than subtlety or originality of thought. It plays upon the surface of life and entirely ignores primary human emotions and feelings. It is realistic and unimaginative. It is town poetry. It ignores the humbler aspects of life and the entire countryside.

45. The Periodical Essay: The Periodical Essay was the peculiar product of the eighteenth century. It was called a ―periodical‖ because it was not published in book form like other types of essays, but it was published in magazines and journals which appeared periodically. It had an inherent social purpose. It aimed at improving the manners and morals of the people. Therefore, it is also termed as the ―social essay. Defoe, Steele, Addison, Dr. Johnson and Goldsmith enriched the periodical essay during the eighteenth century. Daniel Defoe (1661-1731) is a pioneer in the periodical essay and in the novel.

46. DRAMA OF AUGUSTAN AGE The first half of the eighteenth century was almost blank in dramatic literature. The days of the brilliant Restoration Comedy of Manners were over. Sentimental comedy, a kind of comedy that achieved some popularity with respectable middle‐class audiences in the 18th century. In contrast with the aristocratic cynicism of English Restoration comedy, it showed virtue rewarded by domestic bliss; its plots, usually involving unbelievably good middle‐class couples. A sentimental comedy is a comedy that simply addresses itself to the spectator’s love of goodness rather than humor. It shows the morality of its situations and the virtues of characters.

47. Reaction to the Sentimental Comedy Goldsmith and Sheridan pioneered the movement against the sentimental comedy. Goldsmith attacked the sentimental comedy in his essay The Present State of Polite Learning. In another essay On the Theatre or A Comparison Between Laughing and Sentimental Comedy, he started with the classical formula that tragedy should represent the misfortunes of the great and comedy the frailties of humbler people. So, according to the classical principle the sentimental comedy had no place in literature.

48. NOVEL DURING AUGUSTAN The development of English prose contributed to the rise of novel during the eighteenth century.

49. Causes of the Popularity and Rise of Novel in the Augustan Age: I. The Spread of Education and the New Reading Public. In the eighteenth century the spread of education and the appearance of newspapers and magazines led to a remarkable increase in the number of readers. The newspaper and the periodical essay ―encouraged a rapid, inattentive, almost unconscious kind of reading habit‖. It is exactly such a kind of habit that is required for novel reading. The middle-class people, who had a foremost place in English life and society, wanted to read for pleasure and relaxation without caring for any high classical or literary standards, and this change of emphasis favored the growth of the novel. Moreover, the new reading class wanted to read about itself, about its own thoughts, motives and struggles. It did not have leisure enough for reading the lengthy heroic romances. It demanded new type of literature. So the novel was born, which mirrored the tastes and requirements of this new class of readers. Women, who had plenty of leisure, sought pleasure through novel reading.

50. II. The Democratic Movement. The rise of the novel is also associated with the democratic movement in the eighteenth century. Hudson remarks: ―The comprehensiveness of the novel, its free treatment of characters and doings of all sorts and conditions of men, and especially its handling of middle class and low life, are unmistakable evidences of its democratic quality.‖ The rise of the middle class is closely related with the democratic movement. With the growth of commerce and industry, the prestige of the old feudal nobility was on the wane. And the middle classes were increasing steadily in social and political power. The middle classes were inclined to morality, sentiment and reality. The novel reflected the temperament of the middle class and, therefore, it became popular.

51. III. The Development of the New Prose Style. One of the important causes of the development of novel is the evolution of a new prose style. As the novel deals with ordinary life, ordinary people, and ordinary events and with all sorts of miscellaneous matters, it requires plain, lucid and straightforward style. During the eighteenth century, writers like Addison, Steele, Goldsmith, Burke etc. evolved a plain style which was capable of expressing the realities of life. It has a close relation with the reflections and expressions the novel expresses.

52. IV. The Decline of Drama. Drama had grown artificial, unnatural and immoral during the earlier part of the eighteenth century. It was the decline of drama during the first half of the eighteenth century that made way for the novel. The latter part of the eighteenth century was the golden age of the novel.

53. What is a novel? The word novel usually means something new-a novelty. «A fictitious prose narrative or tale presenting a picture of real life, especially of the emotional crises in the real- life history of men and woman portrayed.» «…only some work in which the greatest powers of the mind are displayed, in which the most thorough knowledge of human nature, the happiest delineation of its varieties, the liveliest effusions of wit and humour, are conveyed to the world in the best chosen language» (Jane Austen) The novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose fiction, followed by the novella, short story, and flash fiction.

54. What are the poisitions or attitudes that a person can take when s/he reads a novel? There are two attitudes: 1.What is important is the content or world which the author has created. This is a world we can enter into, full of people, places, things, and events, to which we respond with liking or hatred, pity or criticism, as we do to the real world. 2.The second position we can take, is to see the novel as a text, as a created work of art, and to look at it in a much more analytical way.

55. When studying a novel, there are several aspects of the novel which you will need to know well. -An overview: You need to have a clear understanding of the plot and central ideas, how events follow on and are related, and how the novel is structured. -Narrative viewpoint: Who tells the story? Why has the writer chosen this viewpoint? How does this affect the reader’s response? -Characters: Development of characters and their relationships -The society, setting, or world in which the novel takes place -Language and Style

56. There are also different genres or forms of novel 1.Fictional biography or autobiography focuses on the life and development of one character. 2.Picaresque novels follow a central character on a journey through life in which he or she encounters a series of adventures which form different episodes. 3.Social or protest novels use the characters and the world they inhabit as a way of criticizing or protesting about social or political issues.

57. ROBINSON CRUSOE Daniel Defoe ←Context→ Daniel Defoe was born in 1660, in London, and was originally christened Daniel Foe, changing his name around the age of thirty-five to sound more aristocratic. Like his character Robinson Crusoe, Defoe was a third child. His father, James Foe was a middle-class candle merchant. As a boy, Daniel witnessed two of the greatest disasters of the seventeenth century: a recurrence of the plague and the Great Fire of London in 1666. These events may have shaped his fascination with catastrophes and survival in his writing.

58. In 1683, Defoe became a traveling salesman. Visiting Holland, France, and Spain on business, Defoe developed a taste for travel that lasted throughout his life. His fiction reflects this interest; his characters Moll Flanders and Robinson Crusoe both change their lives by voyaging far from their native England. A fervent critic of King James II, Defoe became affiliated with the supporters of the duke of Monmouth, who led a rebellion against the king in 1685. When the rebellion failed, Defoe was essentially forced out of England, and he spent three years in Europe writing tracts against James II. When the king was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and replaced by William of Orange, Defoe was able to return to England and to his business. Unfortunately, Defoe did not have the same financial success as previously, and by 1692 he was bankrupt, having accumulated the huge sum of 17,000 pounds in debts. Though he eventually paid off most of the total, he was never again entirely free from debt, and the theme of financial vicissitudes— the wild ups and downs in one’s pocketbook—became a prominent theme in his later novels. Robinson Crusoe contains many reflections about the value of money.

59. He also worked as a spy, reveling in aliases and disguises, reflecting his own variable identity as merchant, poet, journalist, and prisoner. This theme of changeable identity would later be expressed in the life of Robinson Crusoe, who becomes merchant, slave, plantation owner, and even unofficial king.

60. Defoe began writing fiction late in life, around the age of sixty. He published his first novel, Robinson Crusoe, in 1719, attracting a large middle-class readership. He followed in 1722 with Moll Flanders, the story of a tough, streetwise heroine whose fortunes rise and fall dramatically. Both works straddle the border between journalism and fiction. Robinson Crusoe was based on the true story of a shipwrecked seaman named Alexander Selkirk and was passed off as history, while Moll Flanders included dark prison scenes drawn from Defoe’s own experiences in Newgate and interviews with prisoners. His focus on the actual conditions of everyday life and avoidance of the courtly and the heroic made Defoe a revolutionary in English literature and helped define the new genre of the novel. Stylistically, Defoe was a great innovator. Defoe used the simple, direct, fact-based style of the middle classes, which became the new standard for the English novel. Defoe died in London on April 24, 1731.

61. ROBINSON CRUSOE Analysis of the major characters How does Crusoe reflect human potential in terms of individualism? Robinson Crusoe displays character traits that have won him the approval of generations of readers. His perseverance in spending months making a canoe, and in practicing pottery making until he gets it right, is praiseworthy. Additionally, his resourcefulness in building a home, dairy, grape arbor, country house, and goat stable from practically nothing is clearly remarkable. The Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau applauded Crusoe’s do-it-yourself independence, and in his book on education, Emile, he recommends that children be taught to imitate Crusoe’s hands-on approach to life.

62. Crusoe seems incapable of deep feelings, as shown by his cold account of leaving his family—he worries about the religious consequences of disobeying his father, but never displays any emotion about leaving. Though he is generous toward people, as when he gives gifts to his sisters and the captain, Crusoe reveals very little tender or sincere affection in his dealings with them. When Crusoe tells us that he has gotten married and that his wife has died all within the same sentence, his indifference to her seems almost cruel. Moreover, as an individual personality, Crusoe is rather dull.

63. What would be the first word that you would teach Friday if you were in place of Crusoe? Crusoe taught Friday to call him «Master» even before teaching him the words for «yes» or «no». How would you interpret this? Crusoe is nonetheless very interested in possessions, power, and prestige. When he first calls himself king of the island it seems jocund, but when he describes the Spaniard as his subject we must take his royal delusion seriously, since it seems he really does consider himself king. His teaching Friday to call him “Master,” even before teaching him the words for “yes” or “no,” seems inappropriate even under the racist standards of the day, as if Crusoe needs to hear the ego-boosting word spoken as soon as possible.

64. Friday Probably the first nonwhite character to be given a realistic, individualized, and humane portrayal in the English novel, Friday has a huge literary and cultural importance. If Crusoe represents the first colonial mind in fiction, then Friday represents not just a Caribbean tribesman, but all the natives of America, Asia, and Africa who would later be oppressed in the age of European imperialism. At the moment when Crusoe teaches Friday to call him “Master” Friday becomes an enduring political symbol of racial injustice in a modern world critical of imperialist expansion.

65. Crusoe appreciates Friday much more than he would a mere servant. Crusoe does not seem to value intimacy with humans much, but he does say that he loves Friday, which is a remarkable disclosure. It is the only time Crusoe makes such an admission in the novel, since he never expresses love for his parents, brothers, sisters, or even his wife. The mere fact that an Englishman confesses more love for an illiterate Caribbean ex-cannibal than for his own family suggests the appeal of Friday’s personality. Crusoe may bring Friday Christianity and clothing, but Friday brings Crusoe emotional warmth and a vitality of spirit that Crusoe’s own European heart lacks.

66. Important Themes & Symbols Mastery -Crusoe’s success in mastering his situation, overcoming his obstacles, and controlling his environment shows the condition of mastery in a positive light, at least at the beginning of the novel. But this theme of mastery becomes more complex and less positive after Friday’s arrival, when the idea of mastery comes to apply more to unfair relationships between humans. Crusoe never entertains the idea of considering Friday an equal—for some reason, superiority comes instinctively to him.

67. The Importance of Self-Awareness His island existence actually deepens his self-awareness as he withdraws from the external social world and turns inward. Crusoe keeps accounts of himself enthusiastically and in various ways. For example, it is significant that Crusoe’s makeshift calendar does not simply mark the passing of days, but instead more egocentrically marks the days he has spent on the island: it is about him, a sort of self- conscious or autobiographical calendar with him at its center. Similarly, Crusoe obsessively keeps a journal to record his daily activities, even when they amount to nothing more than finding a few pieces of wood on the beach or waiting inside while it rains. Crusoe feels the importance of staying aware of his situation at all times.

68. The Footprint How would you react if you had discovered a single footprint on the sand if you were in place of Robinson? Crusoe’s shocking discovery of a single footprint on the sand in Chapter XVIII is one of the most famous moments in the novel, and it symbolizes our hero’s conflicted feelings about human companionship. Crusoe has earlier confessed how much he misses companionship, yet the evidence of a man on his island sends him into a panic. Immediately he interprets the footprint negatively, as the print of the devil or of an aggressor. He never for a moment entertains hope that it could belong to an angel or another European who could rescue or befriend him. This instinctively negative and fearful attitude toward others makes us consider the possibility that Crusoe may not want to return to human society after all, and that the isolation he is experiencing may actually be his ideal state.

69. Jonathan Swift Jonathan Swift was born in Dublin, Ireland, on November 30, 1667. He wrote satires on the political and religious corruption surrounding him. At first he wrote a number of political pamphlets in favor of the Whig party. After some conflicts with the Whig party, mostly because of Swift’s strong allegiance to the church, he became a member of the more conservative Tory party in 1710. After his return to Ireland, Swift became a supporter of the Irish against English attempts to weaken their economy and political power. Three years before his death, he was declared unable to care for himself, and guardians were appointed. He gradually became insane and that his insanity was a natural outgrowth of his outrage against humankind. He is remembered for works such as Gulliver's Travels, A Modest Proposal, A Journal to Stella, Drapier's Letters, The Battle of the Books, An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity, and A Tale of a Tub. Swift is regarded by the Encyclopædia Britannica as the foremost prose satirist in the English language, and is less well known for his poetry. Swift originally published all of his works under pseudonyms – such as Lemuel Gulliver, Isaac Bickerstaff, MB Drapier – or anonymously. He is also known for being a master of two styles of satire: the Horatian and Juvenalian styles.

70. Horatian ode, short lyric poem written in stanzas of two or four lines in the manner of the 1st-century-bc Latin poet Horace. Most of Horace’s odes are intimate and reflective; they are often addressed to a friend and deal with friendship, love, and the practice of poetry.

71. Juvenalian satire, in literature, any bitter and ironic criticism of contemporary persons and institutions that is filled with personal insult, angry moral indignation, and pessimism. The name alludes to the Latin satirist Juvenal, who, in the 1st century ad, brilliantly denounced Roman society, the rich and powerful, and the discomforts and dangers of city life. Samuel Johnson modeled his poem London on Juvenal’s third satire and The Vanity of Human Wishes on the 10th. Gulliver’s Travels (1726) established Jonathan Swift as the master of Juvenalian satire.

72. Gulliver’s Travels This novel is a social satire on human nature. It criticizes political and social life in England during the 18th century. It also criticizes the Whig party.

73. The Lilliputians symbolize humankind’s wildly excessive pride. Swift fully intends the irony of representing the tiniest race visited by Gulliver as by far the most vainglorious and smug, both collectively and individually. There is more backbiting in Lilliput than anywhere else. Lilliput also symbolizes England while Blefuscu represents France or Ireland. These two groups always fight over small issues. Gulliver’s captivity by Lilliputians shows how England as a small country can control the whole world. (colonialism). Lilliputians show their political inclination through their selection of shoes. These inclinations represents Whigs and Tories.

74. Brobdingnagians The Brobdingnagians symbolize the private, personal, and physical side of humans when examined up close and in great detail. But Gulliver says that these people were not smart and thus physical strength is not enough for being powerful.

75. Laputans The Laputans represent the folly of theoretical knowledge that has no relation to human life and no use in the actual world. As a profound cultural conservative, Swift was a critic of the newfangled ideas springing up around him at the dawn of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, a period of great intellectual experimentation and theorization. He much preferred the traditional knowledge that had been tested over centuries. Laputa symbolizes the absurdity of knowledge that has never been tested or applied.

76. Houyhnhnms The Houyhnhnms represent an ideal of rational existence, a life governed by sense and moderation of which philosophers since Plato have long dreamed. As in Plato’s ideal community, the Houyhnhnms have no need to lie nor any word for lying.

77. Alexander Pope Alexander Pope was born in London in 1688. As a Roman Catholic living during a time of Protestant consolidation in England, he was largely excluded from the university system and from political life, and suffered certain social and economic disadvantages because of his religion as well. He was self-taught to a great extent. Pope wrote during what is often called the Augustan Age of English literature (indeed, it is Pope’s career that defines the age). Pope is best known for his satirical verse and for his translation of Homer. Famous for his use of the heroic couplet, he is the third-most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, after Shakespeare and Tennyson. His famous works include Pastorals, An Essay on Criticism, Windsor Forest, The Rape of the Lock, translations of lliad and Odyssey, Elegy to the memory of an Unfortunate Lady, and An Essay on Man.

78. Alexander Pope An Essay on Criticism An Essay on Criticism is one of the first major poems written by the English writer Alexander Pope. It is written in a type of rhyming verse called heroic couplets. It is a verse essay written in the Horatian ode and is primarily concerned with how writers and critics behave in the new literary commerce of Pope's contemporary age. Horatian ode, short lyric poem written in stanzas of two or four lines in the manner of the 1st-century-bc Latin poet Horace. The poem covers a range of good criticism and advice, and represents many of the chief literary ideals of Pope's age.

79. Throughout the poem, Pope refers to ancient writers such as Virgil, Homer, Aristotle, Horace and Longinus. This is a testament to his belief that the "Imitation of the ancients" is the ultimate standard for taste.

80. Pope's Essay on Criticism is broken into three different parts. The first part opens by describing the ways literary critics can actually cause harm. Pope argues that critics must be both careful and humble when critiquing a piece of literature, for the writing of bad criticism actually hurts poetry more than the writing of bad poetry does. Pope points out that each critic has his or her own opinion, and, if applied incorrectly, a critic can actually censure a talented writer. However, Pope argues that if a critic is honest, doesn't fall prey to envy, and listens to the seeds of understanding that are naturally a part of him or herself, one can become a wise critic.

81. In the second part, Pope describes some of the ways that critics develop bad judgment, the chief of which is pride. The key to avoiding this is to know your own faults and limitations. Moreover, critics must study well and focus on conventions passed down from the masters of poetry.

82. In the third part of the poem, Pope offers some wisdom that critics should follow. Once again, Pope emphasizes the importance of humility and studying deeply, particularly studying those poets and critics who truly understand poetry and follow nature. Pope then reflects on the ups and downs of literature and literary critics since Greek culture, explaining how the understanding produced by the Greeks and Romans was lost and is only beginning to be appreciated again.

83. THE RAPE OF THE LOCK Alexander Pope The Rape of the Lock is one of the most famous English- language examples of the mock-epic. Published in its first version in 1712, when Pope was only 23 years old, the poem served to forge his reputation as a poet and remains his most frequently studied work. The inspiration for the poem was an actual incident among Pope’s acquaintances in which Robert, Lord Petre, cut off a lock of Arabella Fermor’s hair, and the young people’s families fell into strife as a result. John Caryll, another member of this same circle of prominent Roman Catholics, asked Pope to write a light poem that would put the episode into a humorous perspective and reconcile the two families.

84. The Rape of the Lock is a humorous indictment of the vanities and idleness of 18th-century high society. Basing his poem on a real incident among families of his acquaintance, Pope intended his verses to cool hot tempers and to encourage his friends to laugh at their own folly. The poem satirizes a minor incident by comparing it to the epic world of the gods.

85. Dr. Samuel Johnson Samuel Johnson (18 September 1709 [O.S. 7 September] – 13 December 1784), often referred to as Dr. Johnson, was an English writer who made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor, and lexicographer. Johnson was a devout Anglican and committed Tory, and has been described as "arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history.

86. Major works Essays, pamphlets, periodicals, sermons 1732–33 Birmingham Journal, 1747 Plan for a Dictionary of the English Language, 1750–52 The Rambler, 1753–54 The Adventurer, 1756 Universal Visiter, 1756- The Literary Magazine, or Universal Review 1758–60, The Idler (1758–1760), 1770 The False Alarm, 1771, Thoughts on the Late Transactions Respecting Falkland's Island,s 1774 The Patriot, 1775 A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland, Taxation No Tyranny, 1781 The Beauties of Johnson Poetry 1728 Messiah, a translation into Latin of Alexander Pope's Messiah, 1738 London, 1747 Prologue at the Opening of the Theatre in Drury Lane, 1749 The Vanity of Human Wishes, Irene, a Tragedy Biographies, criticism 1744 Life of Mr Richard Savage, 1745 Miscellaneous Observations on the Tragedy of Macbeth, 1756 "Life of Browne" in Thomas Browne's Christian Morals, Proposals for Printing, by Subscription, the Dramatick Works of William Shakespeare, 1765 Preface to the Plays of William Shakespeare, The Plays of William Shakespeare, 1779–81 Lives of the Poets Dictionary A Dictionary of the English Language Novellas 1759The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia

87. The Four Wheels of the Novel. Samuel Richardson (Pamela), Henry Fielding (Joseph Andrews-Shamela, Tom Jones), Tobias Smollett (The Adventures of Roderick Random, The Adventures of eregrine Pickle, and The Expedition of Humhry Clinker) and Laurence Sterne (The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy) are known as the ―four wheels of the novel. Henry Fielding’s first novel «Joseph Andrews or Shamela,» (1742) began as a burlesque of the false sentimentality and conventional virtues of Samuel Richardson‘s «Pamela».

88. The Feminist Movement and Mary Wollstonecraft Mary Wollstonecraft (/ˈwʊlstən.krɑːft/; 27 April 1759 – 10 September 1797) was an eighteenth- century English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book. Wollstonecraft is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.

89. The Birth of Gothic Novel The Gothic novel or the novel or terror is the peculiar product of the late eighteenth century. It is a new genre of the romantic fiction which drew its inspiration from the general revival of interest in medieval life and art, in Gothic castles, in churches and Cathedrals and in ruins. These novels opened up to later fiction the dark, irrational side of human nature, the violent egoism, the perverse impulses, and the nightmarish terrors that lie beneath the controlled and ordered surface of the conscious mind. The novelists resorted to the use of ghosts, prophecy and satanic forces in order to arouse emotions of fear, mystery and terror.

90. Important gothic novel writers Horace Walpole (1717-1797)-The Castle of Otranto: A Gothic Story (1763) (The first gothic novel). Clara Reeve, best known for her work The Old English Baron, The Champion of Virtue (1778) Anne Radcliffe (1764-1832)- She made the Gothic novel socially acceptable. The Mysteries of Udolpho-The Italian. Matthew Gregory Lewis-The Monk (1797) Mary Shelley-Frankenstein (1823) Bram Stoker -Dracula (1897).

91. The Romantic Period (1798-1832) -Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1832. -Partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, it was also a revolt against the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment. It was a revolt against the Neoclassicism of the previous century. - It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education, and the natural sciences.

92. Claude Lorraine, Landscape

93. Thomas Cole, A Wild Scene

94. Claude-Louis Chatelet, Pyramid at the Chateau de Maupertuis, 1785

95. Wanderer above the Sea of Fog by Caspar David Friedrich

96. “Romantic" has in fact been used since the Renaissance to suggest free expression of the imagination in the arts, but mainly in a negative sense. Romantic imaginings were thought to interfere with the clarity of the art form, and so lay beyond the bounds of proper subject-matter. Cole Thomas The Course of Empire Destruction 1836

97. Do you beleive in natural goodness of man? Do you think that man is born free and everywhere he is in chains? One of the fundamentals of Romanticism is the belief in the natural goodness of man, the idea that man in a state of nature would behave well but is hindered by civilization (Rousseau -- "man is born free and everywhere he is in chains").

98. How would you interpret Standing Bear’s quotation in terms of industrialization? Like Rousseau, Wordsworth saw modern man as alienated from his "natural" self and from his fellow men by industrialized urban life. Poetry written in the language of rural simplicity would heal this.

99. There are certain historical events which can be cited as reference points since with their emphasis on freedom and democratization, they forested the growth of Romanticism and its future development. These historical events are the American Revolution, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. For some time almost every English man of letters was strongly sympathetic to the democratic ideals coming from America, and to the French fight for “liberty, equality and fraternity”.

100. As a literary movement English Romanticism presented a clear and sharp break with the insistence on reason, common sense and realism that had characterized the Augustan Age. It encouraged individualism and the free expression of personal feelings and turned to emotion and imagination as sources of inspiration.

101. Imagination, emotion, and freedom are certainly the focal points of Romanticism. Any list of particular characteristics of the literature of Romanticism includes subjectivity and an emphasis on individualism; spontaneity; freedom from rules; solitary life rather than life in society; the beliefs that imagination is superior to reason and devotion to beauty; love of and worship of nature.

102. Neoclassicism: keyword: REASONRomanticism: keyword: PASSION Nature is defined as human nature Nature is defined as natural environment (woods, mountains, etc) Society more important than individualIndividual more important than society ImitationOriginality TraditionExperimentation Rules and orderFreedom Mechanical form (imposed from outside)Organic form (growing from inside) LogicIntuition ReasonImagination, Emotion Attempted objectivityAccepted subjectivity Town or cultivated landscapeCountry, preferably untouched nature ConstraintSpontaneity ConformityIndependence, Rebellion Cultivated, formal, social the primitive becomes focus Realism Symbolism

103. The collection of poems published as Lyrical Ballads in 1798 by William Wordsworth (1770- 1850) and Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) has traditionally been seen as the birthplace of English Romanticism. 1832 marks the end of the Romantic Period in England- The Death of Sir Walter Scott and The introduction of the reform bill. Wordsworth defined good poetry as «the spontaneous overflow» of feelings. Coleridge wrote Biographia Literaria to defend Wordsworth’s new approach to poetry and supported the Romantic movement. The other English Romantic poets are William Blake (1757-1827), George Byron (1788-1824), Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), John Keats (1795-1821).

104. Romantic poets like Blake and Wordsworth respond sharply to England's changing landscapes and human relationships. "Nature" is no longer simply God's gift, as previous generations might have thought; some Romantic poets see nature-and the human sources of strength and happiness they believe it nourishes-as threatened with extinction.

105. Each English Romantic poet is a bourgeois revolutionary. Each yearns for freedom. To them, the instincts are free, and society everywhere puts them in chains“. Their yearning is for a ‘return to the natural man,’ to a ‘natural’ rather than artificial language, to a nature unspoiled by mankind.

106. Novel in the Romantic Period Gothic Novel- Mary Shelley-Frankenstein (1823) Novel of Manners- concerns the manners and customs of a specific social class-Jane Austen (Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park, Sense and Sensibility, and Emma). Note: Jane Austen was negatively criticized by Charlotte Bronte. Bronte argued that Austen’s novels lack warmth, enthusiasm, and artistic revolution of her age. Novel of Purpose-was written to propagate the new social and political theories- William Goodwin (Caleb Williams). History Novel-Sir Walter Scott (Guy Mannering-The Antiquary-Old Mortality-Rob Roy-The Heart of Midlothian)

107. William Blake William Blake was a famous poet, painter and engraver of the late 18th century and early 19th century. William Blake published his second collection of poetry, Songs of Innocence, in 1789. He published it with the accompanying illustrative plates. The publication of Songs of Innocence began his series of “Illuminated Books,” in which Blake combined text and visual artwork to achieve his poetic effect. His other noteworthy collection of poems is Songs of Experience.

108. The Chimney Sweeper by William Blake This poem is narrated by a chimney sweeper. He tells us a little bit about himself first before giving us the information about another chimney sweeper, Tom Dacre. After introducing us to Tom, he relates a very strange dream that Tom had one night (it involved chimney sweepers in coffins, angels, flying, and a few other bizarre things). The poem concludes with Tom and the speaker waking up and going to work, sweepin' chimneys, like they usually do.

109. The Chimney Sweeper” present in both Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience are heart wrenching pieces of poetry written by Blake to shed light upon the oppression that the underage children went through just so that the greedy so- called upper class members of the society and their money-hungry parents who sold them off could exploit their innocence and labor to suit their needs. In the Songs of Innocence, this major social issue has been perceived through the eyes of a little boy who takes every misery that his inflicted upon him in his stride with the hopes of a better tomorrow. This little boy is unaware of the gross injustice being done to him.

110. Stanza 1 Summary Line 1 When my mother died I was very young, The poem opens with the speaker telling us that his mother died when he was just a wee little tyke. How young is "very young"? Five? Six? Three? Yeah, somewhere in there sounds about right. This line is just a basic, give-you-the-facts kind of opener, don't you think?

111. Lines 2-4 And my father sold me while yet my tongue Could scarcely cry 'weep! 'weep! 'weep! 'weep! So your chimneys I sweep, and in soot I sleep. The speaker tells us more about his childhood. It turns out his father sold him before he could even really speak. In the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, most chimney sweepers—people who cleaned chimneys—were young boys, because they were small and could crawl up there with ease. So we're thinking that the boy's father sold him to somebody who runs a chimney-cleaning business. After all, he tells us straight up that because his father sold him, he sweeps chimneys, and sleeps in soot. Does the boy sleep in a pile of soot? Or is he so dirty from working that he has soot all over his body? Either way, it does not sound fun. As it turns out, sometimes, chimney sweepers would sleep under the blankets or cloths they used to collect soot during the day. This was known as sleeping in soot.

112. Lines 5-6 There's little Tom Dacre, who cried when his head, That curled like a lamb's back, was shaved: […] Let's shift gears, shall we? Enough about this speaker. Let's learn about his buddy, fellow chimney sweeper Tom Dacre. Poor little Tom Dacre cried when his head was shaved. His head was curled like a lamb's back. In other words, the kid had curly hair, like lamb's wool. Thanks for the simile, Blake! It's a fitting comparison, too, when you consider the fact that lambs are innocent, young animals. These kids are young and innocent, too. Or at least they should be. So why was Tom Dacre's head shaved? Was this to prevent soot from getting all over his hair? Just to be mean?

113. Lines 6-8 […] so I said, "Hush, Tom! never mind it, for when your head's bare, You know that the soot cannot spoil your white hair." The speaker tells us what he said to Tom after his head was shaved. He told Tom to be quiet and not worry about it. Maybe he'll be glad he has a shaved head. Why? Well, because according to our speaker, having a shaved head means Tom's hair won't get messed up by all that nasty soot. So, in order to have good hair, he has to have no hair? What little children have "white hair"? Does the speaker mean blond? Or is he trying to contrast something about the child with the blackness of the soot? It could be a little bit of both. After all, when you factor in Blake's diction here, the lines take on a deeper meaning. The soot would spoil Tom's white hair. That means something black and dark would sully, mess up, and corrupt something white—something innocent.

114. Lines 9-10 And so he was quiet; and that very night, As Tom was a-sleeping, he had such a sight— More on Tom. Apparently, the night after the speaker tried to comfort poor, bald little Tommy, he had a strange dream, or sight. Or is it a vision? Lines 11-12 That thousands of sweepers, Dick, Joe, Ned, and Jack, Were all of them locked up in coffins of black. Tom saw thousands of sweepers "locked up" in black coffins, and at least a few of them were named Dick, Joe, Ned, and Jack. So by choosing these names, the speaker is emphasizing just how many of these poor chimney sweepers there are in the world. Each chimney sweeper is like an everyman. Or everyboy, we guess. So in the dream/vision, Tom is seeing these little tykes quite literally shut up in black coffins, but we readers associate those black coffins with the soot in which these poor young chimney sweepers sleep. In that case, we might think of these coffins as metaphors for the chimney sweepers' current state of affairs. They're already boxed up in black chimneys

115. Lines 13-14 And by came an angel who had a bright key, And he opened the coffins and set them all free; The dismal picture in Tom's dream doesn't last. And thank goodness. Now, an angel shows up with a "bright key" and lets all the sweepers go free. This could be a reference to Matthew 16:19, the verse in which Jesus gives Peter the keys to the kingdom of heaven. Maybe Peter's that angel, coming down to give these kiddos a much- deserved ticket to the Promised Land. In any case, the imagery here is a nice, uplifting contrast to those creepy, suffocating, black coffins. But still—the imagery here is all about death. So is he saying that death is the only way out of this awful, sweepy mess? Lines 15-16 Then down a green plain leaping, laughing, they run, And wash in a river, and shine in the sun. After the sweepers were set free (in Tom's dream), they went and played. Sounds good to Shmoop. These kids definitely deserve some me time, and what better way to get it than frolicking on the plain, by the river, and in the sun? Why do the sweepers now "shine" in the sun? Are they shining like the key, or is this just the reflection of the water on the bodies? Are they in heaven, glowing like little angels? Does this have something to do with how they appear after they have been freed from black coffins and chimney sweeping?

116. Lines 17-18 Then naked and white, all their bags left behind, They rise upon clouds and sport in the wind; Okay, now Tom's dream is getting just plain weird. The former chimney sweepers are naked and flying on clouds in the wind? Yowza. But hey, at least they're burden free. Those bags they leave behind? They probably contain their chimney-sweeping equipment, which they won't need while sporting. In that sense, we can think of these bags as an example of metonymy. These bags represent something that they're closely related to—the chimney-sweeping profession. The thing to notice here is how free these boys are. They're not boxed in coffins or chimneys. Hey, they're not even boxed in by clothing. For once they get to act like the kiddos they are. Lines 19-20 And the angel told Tom, if he'd be a good boy, He'd have God for his father, and never want joy. Tom has a conversation with the angel, who tells him that, if he is good, God will be his father and he'll never lack joy. Does God only act as a father to children who are good? That's what seems to be going on. The word "want" means to desire, but it used to mean "lack." The angel tells Tom that he will never be deprived of joy if he's good (because God will be his father). What's interesting here is that the angel, who freed all the boys, is talking specifically to Tom here. He gets singled out, whereas before, he was just one in a crowd of Neds and Jacks.

117. Lines 21-22 And so Tom awoke; and we rose in the dark, And got with our bags and our brushes to work. In these lines, the speaker finishes narrating Tom's dream, and describes how he (Tom) awoke and the two of them grabbed their chimney-sweeping equipment and went off to work really early in the morning. Lines 23-24 Though the morning was cold, Tom was happy and warm; So if all do their duty they need not fear harm. Here it is, Shmoopers—the big finale. The speaker tells us that despite the fact that it's totally frigid outside, and these kids are having to get to (hard) work in the wee small hours, Tom's all right with it all. Wait. Tom was just awakened from an awesome dream, only to have to go to work. How can he be so happy and warm? Ah, this is where things get interesting. See, Tom's happy and warm because he believes (thanks to the lesson the angel gives him in that dream) that if you do your duty, no harm will come to you. In other words, if he keeps chimney sweeping like a good little boy, he'll be taken care of. Hold your horses. Does that sound right to you? Given everything you know about how awful chimney sweeping is, and that many of these tiny tots were forced into it, is the speaker really saying that no harm will come to them if they keep doing it? We don't think so. Shmoop is calling his bluff. We think Blake is being ironic here, to show us that these kids suffer twofold. Not only do they physically suffer, but they also suffer mentally and emotionally, too.

118. Frankestein by Marry Shelley Mary Shelley (née Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin; 30 August 1797 – 1 February 1851) was an English novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, and travel writer, best known for her Gothic novel Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus (1818). She also edited and promoted the works of her husband, the Romantic poet and philosopher Percy Bysshe Shelley. Her father was the political philosopher William Godwin, and her mother was the philosopher and feminist Mary Wollstonecraft.

119. Frankestein Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus, is a novel written by British author Mary Shelley about eccentric scientist Victor Frankenstein, who creates a grotesque creature in a scientific experiment. Frankenstein is infused with some elements of the Gothic novel and the Romantic movement and is also considered to be one of the earliest examples of science fiction.

120. Short Summary Victor Frankenstein experiences an idyllic childhood in Switzerland, surrounded by a loving family and accompanied by his adored cousin Elizabeth. He is fascinated by ancient philosophers whose grandiose ambitions included looking for an Elixir of Life. After the death of his mother, his first unhappy experience, he attends University in Germany where he applies his new-found knowledge of science to manufacture a human being of enormous size and strength. When his creation comes to life, Frankenstein is so horrified by his own bizarre accomplishment that he falls into a delirious illness which last months. Meanwhile, the creature flees into the woods and disappears. Two years later, Frankenstein returns home upon learning that his brother has been mysteriously murdered. Justine, a friend of Frankenstein, is falsely convicted and executed. Having been hated, rejected and feared by every human encountered, the creature considers all of humanity to be his enemy. He demands that Frankenstein create a female companion for him so that he will not be lonely, and promises that with his companion he will flee to a remote corner of South America and never come into contact with humans again. Frankenstein cannot forgive the creature for the death of his brother and Justine; he refuses to build the female companion. In desperation and rage, the creature promises to make his creator as miserable as himself. In his vengence, the creature murders Frankenstein's friends and family one by one, including his beloved cousin Elizabeth (who he married; 19th-century writers apparently weren't too bothered by incest; Wuthering Heights featured inter-cousin romance as well). When the creator and his creature are at last equally alone and family-less, Frankenstein seeks his own revenge and pursues his enemy into the Arctic northern wastes where together they meet their climatic fate.

121. What messages does Shelley try to give in Frankestein? 1. When you dwell on situations that are outside of your immediate control, you are bound to lose control of yourself. 2. Forbidden Knowledge- First, and foremost, the novel serves as a warning against taking one's quest for Forbidden Knowledge too far. Given that Victor, after many trials, comes to reanimate life. 3. Man cannot play as God 4. Power of Nature-she proves the healing power of nature exists. For example, each time Victor succumbs to illness, it is nature which heals him. Likewise, after a hellish winter of cold and abandonment, the monster feels his heart lighten as spring arrives. The influence of nature on mood is evident throughout the novel,