1. Marine Biology as a Science History of Oceanography &

2. I. Geography of Earth’s Oceans Four principle oceans, plus one

3. A brief history of marine biology 1.50,000 - 500BC: Expanding human populations 2.500BC – 1800: Development of natural history and the age of reason 3.Early 18 th Century: beginning of modern marine science 4.1859: Charles Darwin publishes the “Origin of Species” 5.1900-present: Technological advance

4. 50,000B.C. to 500B.C.

5. Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) Typological Thinking Plato’s favorite student Liked animals and was a prolific writer! –History of Animals (9 volumes) –On the parts of animals (4 volumes) Typological concept of fixed essences Gods are not interested in variation within taxa (groups) Figured out whales are more similar to other mammals than fish

6. Ancient Explorers Greeks = Creative Minds 350 b.c. Aristotle Catalogue of Marine Organisms 25 a.d. Pliny Currents and Moon Phases

7. 135 a.d. Ptolemy First World Atlas

8. Early Civilizations Phoenicians were the first people to establish trade routes and circumnavigate Africa about 600 B.C. Polynesians were the most accomplished sailors between 1500-500 B.C. Early explorers observed natural phenomena to navigate such as: wind and wave patterns, sense of smell, location and pattern of clouds, and sightings of birds.

9. 50,000 - 500BC Expanding human populations Polynesian Exploration: Tonga and Tahiti 1400 BC Samoa 1000 BC Hawaii 500 AD New Zealand 750 AD

10. Ancient Explorers Phoenicians Navigators and Merchants to England Successful and Brave

11. 500B.C. to 1800A.D.

12. Middle Ages Significant improvement in: ship design and building, navigation, and cartography (maps) Vikings are credited with extensive voyages and colonized Iceland from A.D. 700-1300 Arabians improved trade routes through the Indian Ocean Charts still lacked lines of latitude and longitude In the 13 th century, magnetic compass directions were added to maps and information was translated to Latin.

13. The European Middle Ages Also known as the Dark Ages because during this time further advancements in the knowledge of geography and science were suppressed in Europe. –Little ocean exploration by Europeans was made, only trade continued. The Middle Ages (800 A.D. – 1400)

14. Viking Explorations and Discoveries The Vikings were the only people with significant exploration taking place in Europe during the Dark Ages: –They established trade routes throughout Britain, Ireland, Southern Europe, North Africa, and Central Asia. –In the 9th century there was a global warming that freed the North Atlantic of ice allowing the Vikings to explore westward discovering Iceland, Greenland, and North America.

15. Chinese Explorations and Discoveries The Chinese were very active explorers during the Middle Ages and were responsible for many important contributions. –Probably the most important of their discoveries was the magnetic compass dating about 1000 A.D. and in widespread use about 1125. –Europe’s first reference to the compass was in 1190 in a poem, but was not widely used until the 1400s. By the mid 1400s in China shipbuilding was well established. –Chinese ships from that period had central rudders and watertight compartments – these are part of today’s modern ships.

16. The End of the Middle Ages and a Route Around Africa The period of 1400-1700 is called the Renaissance. A new interest in long ocean expeditions and travel in the 15th century was motivated by economics, politics and religion. Three explorers tried to establish a route to the East around Africa: –The first of these was Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal in the early 1400s. He went down the west coast of Africa, but did not find a route around the Cape of Good Hope. –The second was Bartholomeu Dias who completed a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1487, but did not make it all the way to India. –The third was Vasco da Gamma. In 1497 he led the first expedition around the Cape of Good Hope all the way to India.

17. Raphael’s School of Athens 500BC – 1800 Development of natural history

18. 15 th and 16 th Centuries Voyages were the result of a desire to increase trade Bartholomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 Christopher Columbus is credited with being the first European to see the “New World” Amerigo Vespucci sailed to the New World and believed South America was a separate continent in 1507 Vasco Nuñez de Balboa is credited with first sighting the Pacific Ocean in 1513

19. Ferdinand Magellan’s ship was the first to circumnavigate the globe in 1522. He was killed in the Philippines in 1521. Henry Hudson sailed the northwest passage and Hudson Bay. Sir Francis Drake sailed the “Golden Hind” to circumnavigate the globe from 1577-1580 and returned with Spanish gold

20. Exploration of the New World Christopher Columbus took the first of his four voyages to find a route to Asia in 1492. He believed he’d found Asia when he landed on a Caribbean island. Between 1454-1512, Amerigo Vespucci voyaged to South America. He explored much of the east coast, the mouth of the Amazon River, and is credited as the first European to recognize that South America was a new continent. The Americas are named in honor of Vespucci.

21. In the early 1500s, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa led an expedition that crossed the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean. Balboa was the first European to sail in the Pacific. –News that the Pacific lay beyond the Americas renewed the hope that one could sail around the world west-to-east.

22. Exploration of the New World (continued) In 1519, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to circumnavigate the world. He had five ships and about 260 men. – Magellan died in the Philippines in a fight with islanders. – One ship and 18 men –completed the journey –in 1522.

23. European Explorers Prince Henry Of Portugal School for navigation Scholarly Monarch Focused on Scientific Principles

24. The second successful circum- navigation of the world was made in 1577 by Francis Drake. –He left England for the New World with the purpose of raiding Spanish ships and settlements for treasure. –Drake returned to England in 1580 where he was knighted for his exploits as well as for bringing back treasure and spices worth a fortune.

25. 17 th Century

26. Galileo trial for “suspicion of heresy” in 1632 Age of Reason: 17 th Century Development of rational thought

27. 18 th Century

28. Voyages of James Cook

29. European Explorers Captain Cook Great Navigator and Discoverer Found Hawaiian Islands and many other Pacific Islands Native of England

30. Hydrography James Cook created the early extensive maps during his voyages of the Pacific Ocean. He included: ocean depth, prevailing winds, surface currents, and water temperature Ben Franklin charted the Gulf Stream in 1769 Matthew Maury, “Father of Modern Oceanography” published a book entitled “The Physical Geography of the Sea”. His knowledge reduced travel times by as much as a month

31. First hierarchical system of classification Binomial nomenclature Western Exploration peaks (Cook reaches Hawaii in 1778) Naturalists on these voyages (many trained by Linnaeus himself) collected and returned to Europe to categorize. Age of the Enlightenment 18 th Century The new science of systematics Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778)

32. 18 th Century Birth of Modern Science Spiritual reasoning losing ground to philosophies based on materialism Galileo and Newton showed that natural phenomena could be explained by reason Population growth, trade and mobility, democracy made people skeptical of an accepted order Perhaps natural world was not fixed…?

33. 18 th Century Birth of Modern Science Geology- A record of life indicated the world was not static James Hutton (1726-1797) put forth the idea of uniformitarianism. Processes that we observe in the present were also going on in the past. “The present is the key to the past” Hypotheses about the natural world could be proposed and tested

34. Early American Marine History Benjamin Franklin 1750 Charted the Gulf Stream To increase postal service To increase vessels speed To gain advantage in war time

35. Benjamin Franklin & the Gulf Stream

36. 19 th Century

37. Christian Ehrenberg (1795–1876) Ehrenberg, a Professor of Medicine in Berlin, Germany, and an amateur rock collector, examined small particles of rocks under a microscope. Looking at his rock samples under high magnification, he found fossil evidence of small plants and animals. He reasoned that if these plants and animals were in the rock, and the rock came from the sea floor, then the small plants and animals might also be present in seawater. He then examined a sample of concentrated sea water under a microscope, and found live animals similar to the fossils in the rock samples. We now call this whole group of microscopic plants and animals plankton.

38. Early marine ecology Birth of Larval Biology 1828- J. Vaughan Thomson makes the link between larval and adult forms in crabs Key to population dynamics and dispersal of marine organisms

39. Johann Forchhammer (1794– 1865) Forchhammer was a geologist working on the minerals in rocks that would dissolve in water. He found seven minerals in rocks that would dissolve easily in water, the same seven minerals that make up the “salt” in salt water. Forchhammer’s work showed that the salt in seawater originated from the land.

40. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Remembered more for his theory of evolution than for his work in oceanography, Darwin spent five years on a British survey vessel observing coral reefs and atolls. Following the expedition, he proposed an important theory on the formation of atolls and coral reefs. Darwin’s illustrations of atoll formation from The Voyage of the Beagle

41. H.M.S. Beagle

42. 19 th Century exploration Charles Darwin was a Naturalist Sailed on the HMS Beagle from 1831-1836 He collected a variety of marine organisms Edward Forbes, one of the leading marine biologist of that time, believed the oceans could be divided vertically into zones. He suggested no life existed below 1800 feet

43. 1831-1836 Darwin’s Voyage on the HMS Beagle

45. More Recent Exploits Charles Darwin HMS Beagle 1850 Classified, collected and studied marine organisms Three year oceanic study by English Navy Darwin discovered and drew new species of animals from all over the world

46. Darwin’s Contributions 1842 “Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs” 1851 “Living Cirripedia, A monograph on the sub-class Cirripedia, with figures of all the species. The Lepadidæ; or, pedunculated cirripedes” 1854 “Living Cirripedia, The Balanidæ, (or sessile cirripedes); the Verrucidæ” 1859 “The Origin of species”

47. Charles Darwin

48. Darwin’s Bulldog Thomas Huxley (1825–1895 ) was a naturalist who asked to analyze bottom samples from a survey vessel, in some of which he found what appeared to be a very primitive form of life. He named it Bathybius Haeckelli, and even went so far as to speculate how Bathybius reproduced. As it turned out, there was no such animal as Bathybius, it was an artifact. When the bottom sample was preserved with alcohol, the alcohol reacted with chemicals in the sample and produced the jelly mass right there in the jar.

49. The Rosses & Edward Forbes Controversy: vertical distribution of life in the oceans.

50. Depth of No Life In the 1840’s, the British biologist Edward Forbes was studying the zonation of life in the sea. He observed that in shallow water, the sea floor contained numerous kinds of sea life. But as the water became deeper, the numbers of marine life became less. Forbes concluded that at a depth of 300 fathoms (1800 feet) the water was too cold, the pressure too great, and the environment too hostile for life to exist. In fact, Forbes was wrong. There is no such thing as “too deep” for marine life to exist. Life occurs at the bottom of the deepest ocean trenches, almost 7 miles deep!

51. Early marine ecology Azoic theory of marine life Founder of oceanography and marine biology 1 st to use bottom dredge to sample ocean bottom Abundance of organisms declined with depth Life could not exist at depths greater than 1800 feet Edward Forbes (1815-1854)

52. John and James Ross At the same time Forbes was proposing a “depth of zero animal life”, two Canadian scientists, Sir John Ross and his nephew, Sir James Clark Ross, were bringing up samples of marine life from the sea floor at far below the depth Forbes’ was saying life ceased to exist. Working off the coast of North America with a bottom grab that had steel jaws and could be lowered down on a cable to bring up a sample of the bottom and its marine life, they were collecting samples teeming with animal life, like starfish, worms, clams, and other bottom-dwelling animals. NOAA Photo

53. Early Marine Ecology Forbes “azoic theory” tested by deep dredging Michael Sars tested, and rejected azoic theory by finding 19 species below 1800 feet! Science!

54. H.M.S Challenger

55. The Challenger Expedition To settle the dispute in the scientific community between Forbes on eastern side of the Atlantic the Rosses on the western side, the British Royal Society funded an ambitious oceanographic survey. A steam and sail-powered naval ship, the H.M.S. Challenger, was converted into the world’s first oceanographic research vessel for the voyage. HMS Challenger Source: NOAA Photo Library The scientific party was composed of six scientists under the direction of Sir Wyville Thompson.

56. HMS Challenger

57. Challenger Expeditions (1872-1876)

58. 1872-1876 Challenger Expeditions First oceanographic expedition to circumnavigate the globe First "modern" oceanographic expedition: standardized methods to collect data and investigated aspects of physics, chemistry, biology, and geology Established the existence of life at extreme depths Sir Charles Wyville Thomson publishes the findings in the “Challenger Reports”. 50 Volumes Collections are still used today!

59. International Marine Impact Studies HMS Challenger 1870 3 ½ year study First true research ship Challenger Reports = 50 volumes Discovered the principle of Constant Proportion and Manganese nodules Thompson = Leader, Natural History Murray = Assistant, Geologist Information is still currently used

60. The HMS Challenger

61. Challenger Expedition Voyage lasted from 1872-1876, 3 ½ years Ocean depth measurements were taken at 361 locations Maximum depth of 26, 850 feet deep in the Mariana trench was recorded Water samples analyzed for temperature and chemistry It was shown that relative abundance of major component ions of seawater remains constant 4,417 new species of marine of new organisms were discovered Deep currents were investigated It took 20 years to catalogue the collected data

62. The HMS Challenger circumnavigated the world from 1872 - 72 in the first major scientific study of the oceans. http://www.wshs.fcps.k12.va.us/academic/science/bjewell /ocean/hhocean/final/chall.htm

63. The HMS Challenger, like all vessels up till then, determined depth to the sea floors by dropping a weighted line. Their measurements at least permitted the first rough understanding of the topography of the ocean bottoms.

64. The ship left England in 1872, and returned in 1876, sampling the waters and marine life of parts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. They took an enormous number of samples, from sea water to bottom mud, from microscopic plankton to fish and birds. The Challenger Expedition

65. Once back in England, these samples were sent to experts in each field for analysis. It took some 15 years for these samples to be studied and written up. Then one of the biologists from the scientific party, John Murray, put all this information together and had it published. The Challenger Expedition When finished, the Challenger Reports totaled nearly 300,000 pages bound in 50 volumes. For the next 40 years, this work was to be the “bible” of oceanography. History often dates the start of modern oceanography with the Challenger expedition. Many of the sampling techniques still in use today were developed on this expedition.

66. The major findings of the Challenger Expedition include*: The Challenger Expedition the first systematic plot of currents and temperatures in the ocean a map of bottom deposits that has not been changed much by more recent studies an outline of the main contours of the ocean basins the discovery of the mid-Atlantic Ridge the then record 26,900 feet (8,200 meters) Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench the discovery of 715 new genera and 4,717 new species of ocean life forms the discovery of prodigious life forms even at great depths in the ocean! * According to the Environmental News Network Daily News.

67. Captain Nansen

68. Research Vessel Fram ~ 1900 Involved in Artic Research Invented the Nansen bottle which took water from different depths to determine Salinity, Temperature and Organisms From Norway as Zoologist and Statesman He earned the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922

69. Nansen and the Voyage of the Fram An important expedition at the end of the 19th century was led by Fridtjof Nansen (1861–1930) of Norway. In the 1890’s, Nansen was interested in Arctic exploration. At that time it was thought that there was land under the North Pole, but Nansen was convinced otherwise. To prove this, he had the Fram custom built with a rounded hull so that when it became frozen in the pack ice, it would slip up on top of the forming ice and not be crushed as the ice later shifted. The Fram Source: The Otto Sverdrup Centennial Expedition

70. In 1893, Nansen and his crew of twelve, with a five years supply of provisions, sailed up to the edge of the pack ice and allowed the ship to be frozen into the ice. Nansen and the Voyage of the Fram The Fram then drifted with the ice pack for three years, but never made it to the North Pole, one of Nansen’s goals. The Fram finally broke free of the ice off the coast of Greenland, proving that the Arctic Sea was all ice which drifted with the polar winds. While frozen into the ice, Nansen took twelve samples of the Arctic waters beneath the ice, measured the depths of the Arctic Sea, and developed a sampling device later called the “Nansen Bottle.”

71. Fridtjof Nansen-Norwegian scientist

72. The Fram

73. Knudsen thermometer devised by Martin Knudsen for use with an insulated water sampling bottle.

74. Matthew Maury 1850

75. Matthew Maury (1806–1873) Another man who made a significant contribution to the knowledge of the sea was Matthew Maury. As the director of the Navy’s Bureau of Charts and Instruments, Maury studied the huge amount of information contained in old ships log books stored under his care. Maury later represented the U.S. at the Brussels Maritime Conference which convened to standardize how oceanographers record weather and current observations.

76. Matthew Maury (1806–1873) Historians often refer to Maury as the “Father of Physical Oceanography” for his work. In 1847, Maury assembled all this information into a chart of the wind and surface currents of the North Atlantic.

77. More Recent Exploits Matthew Maury 1850 Wrote Physical Geography of the Sea Considered the first Oceanographer His data is still being used today He was the leader of the U.S. National Ocean Survey which became the U.S. Navy

78. Matthew Maury “The Father of Oceanography” Published “The Physical Geography of the Sea” Brought Oceanography recognition designed superior sampling devices Alexander Agassiz

79. Spencer Baird Naturalist, worked for the Smithsonian developing large collections for the museum, commissioner of National Marine Fisheries Institution 1863

80. 20 th Century

81. The 20 th Century In 1905, Walfred Ekman, a Scandinavian physicist, used Nansen’s information about the movements of polar ice sheets and developed a mathematical model describing the response of surface water flows to winds. This led the way for much of our physical oceanography in the early 20 th century.

83. The Meteor Expedition In 1925, scientists aboard the German ship Meteor were the first to use of the echo sounder for measuring the depth of the sea floor. With the echo sounder, a pulse of sound is transmitted downward to bounce off the sea floor and return to a special receiver set in the bottom of the ship. Since the speed of sound in water is about 1500 m/s, the time interval between the transmission and reception of the sound pulse could be converted to a depth measurement. The best thing about the echo sounder is that it could be used while the ship was in motion, giving continuous readings that were recorded on a fathometer.

84. Three Expeditions The German Meteor Expedition (1925) –Crossed the Atlantic 14 times in two years. –Data collected established patterns for ocean water circulation, nutrient dispersal, and plankton growth. –Primary accomplishment was mapping the Atlantic seafloor with echo-sounding technology

85. 20th Century Technological advances in ocean exploration 1934 - William Beebe and Otis Barton take Bathysphere descent to 3000 feet off Bermuda Raised and lowered by cable, had electrical power, air supply, and chemistry to remove CO 2 Discovered new fish and invertebrates

86. Bathysphere Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

87. Jacques Cousteau

88. Marine Explorer ~ concerned with life in the Oceans 1950’s ~ 1990’s Environmentalist ~ Endangered Species Biological Research Vessel Calypso Invented SCUBA with Emile Gagnon Documentary TV Shows in the 1970’s French WWII Hero and Spy

89. 20th Century Technological advances in ocean exploration Jaques-Yves Costeau and Emile Gagnan invent SCUBA in 1942 Revolutionizes marine biology

90. Also in the 1940s, Jacques-Yves Cousteau and colleagues in the French Navy invented SCUBA (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus.) This allowed people to study the shallow floors more efficiently. http://www.cousteausociety.org/people.htm

91. Self-Contained Diving In 1840, Augustus Siebe introduced the first practical dive equipment; hard-hat diving that supplied air from the surface through a hose. –Used mainly for underwater construction, salvage, and ship maintenance. Limited because it is heavy and requires a support team and vessel. In 1878, Englishman Henry Fleuss introduced the first workable self-contained underwater breathing apparatus, called scuba today. In 1943, Jacques Cousteau introduced the first practical scuba. Twentieth-Century Marine Science

92. Dr. Robert Ballard 1970 ~ Current

93. Naval research Officer Marine Geologist & director of Wood’s Hole Wrecks Found: Titanic Bismarch Lusitania WW II Ships Greek Vessels

94. Dr. Robert Ballard 1970 ~ Current Developed Better Submersible adaptations Increased the knowledge of Plate tectonics Studied Hydrothermal vents Developed Project Jason

95. NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration o Is a scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere o Created October 3, 1970 o Budget in 2011- 5.6 Billion

96. WHOI Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution –located in Cape Cod, Massachusetts, research and education facility, houses many research vessels, established in 1930

97. SIO Scripps Institute of Oceanography –established in 1802 in California, is one of the oldest and largest centers for ocean and Earth science research, public service, undergraduate and graduate training in the world

98. United Nations Law of the Sea Treaty complete in 1982, recognizes deep-sea mineral resources as the heritage of all humankind, established that the UN will license companies to mine in tandem with a UN company, quantities mined are limited and regulated by the UN