1. Lecture Topics: 11/22 HW 7 File systems –block allocation Unix and NT –disk scheduling –file caches –RAID

2. HW 7 Comments? What you should have learned:

3. HW 6 It was too easy (graded out of 80 + 5 extra credit) –mean 75 –median 80

4. Anatomy of a Magnetic Disk spindle platters arm read/write heads tracks sectors cylinder: all tracks at the same radius, two per platter

5. File System Overview A disk block (aka cluster) is a fixed-size contiguous group of disk sectors You can imagine a file is simply a sequence of disk blocks –may not be contiguous A directory is just a file that points to other files (or directories) File system issues –how many sectors per block? –how do you keep track of which blocks a file is using? –how do you keep track of which blocks are free? –most files are small, but most I/O is to big files. Must optimize both

6. Sectors per Block What if there are many sectors per block –a file might fit in a single block (faster access) –internal fragmentation (FAT16 b/c can only have 64K blocks) What if there is only one sector per block –increases access time because files are spread over multiple blocks

7. Contiguous Allocation Allocating a file in contiguous blocks (e.g. blocks on the same track) makes accessing it fast, why? Random access is easy What does the directory need to store? Pain to make files bigger. Often, must copy whole files.

8. Linked Allocation Each block contains a pointer to the next block in the file (the last block is NULL) What does the directory need to store? Advantages –easy to grow files Disadvantages –poor random access –pay seek penalty many times

9. Indexed Allocation An array lists where each block of the file is stored Try to allocate blocks contiguously But can allocate a blocks anywhere Where is this array list stored? Is the array fixed size?

10. Unix Inodes In Unix this list of blocks is stored in an inode –for each file a directory stores an the file name and a inode Some entries point directly to a file block –these are sufficient for small files (up to 1KB) Some entries point to a list of block entries –these are sufficient for medium sized files (up to 256KB) Some entries point to lists of lists of block entries –these are sufficient for large files (up to 64MB) Some entries point to lists of lists of lists of block entries –these are sufficient for humongous files (up to 16GB) Advantages –number of pointers grows dynamically –can have sparse files

11. Inode Example other file information direct blocks singly indirect doubly indirect triply-indirect data

12. NTFS The MFT (master file table) stores information about each file This is stored at a well known location so you can always find it Each entry is 1KB and stores –name, attribute, security info, data –a small file’s data fits in the MFT entry (don’t even need to allocate another block) –or data can be list of block ranges (similar to inodes) A directory in NT is like any other file –it stores the MFT numbers of the files (or subdirectories) in that directory The root directory of a volume is stored at a fixed location in the MTF so you always know where to start

13. Free Space How do you find free disk blocks? Bitmap: One long string of bits represents the disk, one bit per block –Unix and NT Linked list: each free block points to the next one (slow!) Grouping: list free blocks in the first free block Counting: keep a list of streaks of free blocks and their lengths

14. Making Disks Faster If a program reads one byte from a file and does some processing, then reads the next byte from a file and does some processing? What if a program writes results to a file in the same way Ways to make disks faster –minimize seeks –caching

15. Disk Layout Prevent fragmentation –allocate files to contiguous blocks Put directories and their files (and the files' inodes) near each other –improves locality, don’t have to seek far Put commonly used directories in center track Thanksgiving directory on same track as Thanksgiving files

16. Disk Scheduling The disk has requests to read tracks –0, 10, 4, 7 (0 is on the outside) If the disk head is at track 1, how should we order these reads to minimize how far the disk head moves?

17. Disk Scheduling Evaluate these scheduling algorithms FIFO--First In First Out –what's the problem? SSTF--Shortest Seek Time First –pick the request closest to the disk head –what's the problem SCAN –also known as an elevator algorithm –take the closest request in the direction of travel –head moves back and forth from the center to the edge, to the center, to the edge… –does this solve SSTF's problem?

18. Disk Buffers Most files are read sequentially When one block is read, the disk reads the blocks that follow it because they will likely be read too These blocks are stored in a memory buffer on the disk Reads to the next blocks don’t have to pay seek and rotational delay

19. File Caches File accesses exhibit locality just like everything else Therefore cache frequently-used file blocks in main memory –modern file systems wouldn't work without this File cache should be write-through not write- back? Why? It's a little ironic that we use memory to store frequently-used disk blocks and disk to store infrequently used memory pages

20. File Cache A portion of memory is devoted to storing frequently used files The amount of memory changes based on the workload –if more files are being accessed then use more memory Virtual pages that are evicted from physical memory often go to the file cache before the page file –gives a virtual page a second chance –doesn't require a copy because file cache can be stored anywhere in memory Memory Virtual memory pages File cache Frequently used file blocks

21. A Case for RAID If CPU and memory speeds increase But IO does not improve at the same rate All IO applications will become IO bound How do we fix this?

22. 1984 Disk Comparison SLED (Single Large Expensive Magnetic Disk) IBM 3380 –14” diameter –24 cubic feet –7.5 GB –200 IO’s per second –3 MB/sec transfer rate Conners CP3100 –3.5” diameter –.03 cubic feet –100 MB –.2 IO’s per second –.3 MB/sec transfer rate

23. 2000 Disk Comparison Today there are no longer two sets of disks (expensive and inexpensive) –there are also no longer two sets of CPUs How do we make these small inexpensive disks fast and reliable?

24. AID Array of Inexpensive Disks –use a lot of small inexpensive disks instead of one big expensive disk Advantages –lower cost –improved data rate (pieces of a file on multiple disks) –improved IO rate (increase xput by how many disks you have) Disadvantages –reliability is terrible Mean Time to Failure changes from 4 years to 2 weeks

25. RAID Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks Use extra disks to improve reliability –data disks –check disks (parity) Can provide any level of reliability But we still want –efficient disk usage –good performance RAID1 – RAID5

26. RAID4 Use one disk to store the parity of the the other disks –parity bit is 1 if the sum of the other bits is odd –parity bit is 0 if the sum of the other bits is even –allows you to determine if any single bit is wrong –can recreate a disk if one disk fails by using the parity disk –Example, Disk3 crashes, what was stored there? Disk0Disk1Disk2 Disk3 Disk4Parity Disk 101 ? 01

27. RAID6 Continued Striping a file with 16 blocks across 5 disks + 1 parity disk 0 5 10 15 1 6 11 0 2 7 12 1 3 8 13 2 4 9 14 3 P P P P Disk 0Disk 1Disk 2Disk 3Disk 4Parity Disk Can read file in ¼ of the time