2. Chapter: Chemical Reactions
Table of Contents
Chapter: Chemical Reactions
Section 1: Chemical Formulas and Equations
Section 2: Rates of Chemical Reactions

3. Physical or Chemical Change?
Chemical Formulas and Equations 1
Physical or Chemical Change?
Matter can undergo two kinds of changes—physical and chemical.
Physical changes in a substance affect only physical properties, such as its size and shape, or whether it is a solid, liquid or gas.

4. Physical or Chemical Change?
Chemical Formulas and Equations 1
Physical or Chemical Change?
Chemical changes produce new substances that have properties different from those of the original substances.
A process that produces chemical change is a chemical reaction.

5. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Chemical Equations
To describe a chemical reaction, you must know which substances react and which substances are formed in the reaction.
The substances that react are called reactants (ree AK tunts).

6. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Chemical Equations
Reactants are the substances that exist before the reaction begins.
The substances that form as a result of the reaction are called the products.

7. Describing What Happens
Chemical Formulas and Equations 1
Describing What Happens
What goes on in the chemical reaction can be more than what you see with you eyes.
Chemists try to find out which reactants are used and which products are formed in a chemical reaction.

8. Describing What Happens
Chemical Formulas and Equations 1
Describing What Happens
They can write it in a shorthand form called a chemical equation.
A chemical equation tells chemists at a glance the reactants, products, physical state, and the proportions of each substance present.

9. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Using Words
One way you can describe a chemical reaction is with an equation that uses words to name the reactants and products.

10. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Using Words
The reactants are listed on the left side of an arrow, separated from each other by plus signs.

11. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Using Words
The products are placed on the right side of the arrow, also separated by plus signs.

12. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Using Words
The arrow between the reactants and products represent the changes that occur during the chemical reaction.

13. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Using Chemical Names
Chemical names are usually used in word equations instead of common names.
In a baking soda and vinegar reaction, the chemical names of the reactants are sodium hydrogen carbonate and acetic acid.

14. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Using Chemical Names
The names of the products are sodium acetate, water, and carbon dioxide.
The word equation for the reaction is as follows:

15. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Using Formulas
The word equation for the reaction of baking soda and vinegar is long.
You can convert a word equation into a chemical equation by substituting chemical formulas for the chemical names.

16. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Using Formulas
The chemical equation for the reaction between baking soda and vinegar can be written as follows.

17. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Subscripts
When you look at chemical formulas, notice the small numbers written to the right of the atoms.
These numbers called subscripts, tell you the number of atoms of each element in that compound.
If an atom has no subscript, it means that only one atom of that element is in the compound.

18. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Conservation of Mass
According to the law of conservation of mass, the mass of the products must be the same as the mass of the reactants in that chemical reaction.
This principle was first stated by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier ( ).

19. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Conservation of Mass
He showed that chemical reactions are much like mathematical equations.
In math equations, the right and left sides of the questions are numerically equal.

20. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Conservation of Mass
Chemical equations are similar, but it is the number and kind of atoms that are equal on the two sides.

21. Balancing Chemical Equations
Chemical Formulas and Equations 1
Balancing Chemical Equations
When you write the chemical equation for a reaction, you must observe the law of conservation of mass.
When you count the number of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sodium atoms of each side of the arrow in the equation, you find equal numbers of each kind of atom.

22. Balancing Chemical Equations
Chemical Formulas and Equations 1
Balancing Chemical Equations
This means the equation is balanced and the law of conservation of mass is observed.

23. Balancing Chemical Equations
Chemical Formulas and Equations 1
Balancing Chemical Equations
Not all chemical equations are balanced so easily.
The following unbalanced equation shows what happens when silver tarnishes.

24. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Count the Atoms
Count the number of atoms of each type in the reactants and in the products.
One silver atom is on the reactant side and two silver atoms are on the product side. This cannot be true.

25. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Count the Atoms
Place a 2 in front of the reactant Ag and check to see if the equation is balanced. Recount the number of atoms of each type.
The equation is now balanced.

26. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Count the Atoms
When balancing chemical equations, numbers are placed before the formulas as you did for Ag.
These are called coefficients. However, never change the subscripts written to the right of the atoms in a formula.
Changing these numbers change the identity of the compound.

27. Energy in Chemical Reactions
Chemical Formulas and Equations 1
Energy in Chemical Reactions
Often, energy is released or absorbed during a chemical reaction.
For example, energy of a welding torch is released when hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water.

28. Energy Released 1 Where does this energy come from?
Chemical Formulas and Equations 1
Energy Released
Where does this energy come from?
In reactions that release energy, the products are more stable, and their bonds have less energy than those of the reactants.
The extra energy is released in various forms—light, sound, and heat.

29. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Energy Absorbed
In reactions that absorb energy, the reactants are more stable, and their bonds have less energy than those of the products.

30. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Energy Absorbed
As you have seen, reactions can release or absorb energy of several kinds, including electricity, light, sound, and heat.
Electrical energy is needed to break water into its components.

31. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Energy Absorbed
Endothermic (en doh THUR mihk) reactions absorb heat energy.
Exothermic (ek soh THUR nihk) reactions release heat energy.

32. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Heat Released
Burning is an exothermic chemical reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen to produce heat along with light, carbon dioxide, and water.

33. Rapid Release 1 Sometimes energy is released rapidly.
Chemical Formulas and Equations 1
Rapid Release
Sometimes energy is released rapidly.
For example, charcoal lighter fluid combines with oxygen in the air and produces enough heat to ignite a charcoal fire within a few minutes.

34. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Slow Release
Other materials also combine with oxygen but release heat so slowly that you cannot see or feel it happen.
This is the case when iron combines with oxygen in the air to form rust.

35. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Heat Absorbed
An example of an endothermic physical process that absorbs heat energy is the cold pack shown.
The heavy plastic cold pack holds ammonium nitrate and water.
The two substances are separated by a plastic divider.

36. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Heat Absorbed
When you squeeze the bag, you break the divider so that the ammonium nitrate dissolves in the water.
The dissolving process absorbs heat energy.

37. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Energy in the Equation
The word energy often is written in equations as either a reactant or a product.
Energy written as a reactant helps you think of energy as a necessary ingredient for the reaction to take place.

38. Chemical Formulas and Equations1
Energy in the Equation
Similarly, in the equation for an exothermic reaction, the word energy often is written along with the products.
This tells you that energy is released.

39. Section Check
Section Check 1
Question 1
In a chemical reaction, the substances that react are called the _______.
Answer
The substances that react are called reactants. The substances that form as a result of the reaction are known as the products.

40. Section Check 1
Question 2
What kind of expression is Acetic acid + Sodium hydrogen carbonate  Sodium acetate + Water + Carbon dioxide?
Answer
This is a word equation. It spells out the actual words that are used to describe the reactants rather than writing them as chemical formulas.

41. Section Check 1
Question 3
What kind of expression is CH3COOH + NaHCO3  CH3COONa + H2O + CO2?
Answer
This is an example of a chemical equation. It uses chemical formulas instead of word names.

42. How Fast? 2 Fireworks explode in rapid succession on a summer night.
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
How Fast?
Fireworks explode in rapid succession on a summer night.
Old copper pennies darken slowly while they lie forgotten in a drawer.

43. How Fast? 2 Not all chemical reactions take place at the same rate.
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
How Fast?
Not all chemical reactions take place at the same rate.
Some reactions, such as fireworks or lighting a campfire, need help to get going.
Others seem to start on their own.

44. Activation Energy— Starting a Reaction
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
Activation Energy— Starting a Reaction
Before a reaction can start, molecules of the reactants have to bump into each other, or collide.
The collision must be strong enough.
This means the reactants must smash into each other with a certain amount of energy.

45. Activation Energy— Starting a Reaction
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
Activation Energy— Starting a Reaction
To start any chemical reaction, a minimum amount of energy is needed.
This energy is called the activation energy of the reaction.

46. Activation Energy— Starting a Reaction
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
Activation Energy— Starting a Reaction
Most fuels need energy to ignite.
The Olympic Torch provided the activation energy required to light the fuel in the cauldron.

47. Rates of Chemical Reactions2
Reaction Rate
A rate tells you how much something changes over a given period of time.

48. Reaction Rate 2 Chemical reactions have rates, too.
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
Reaction Rate
Chemical reactions have rates, too.
The rate of reaction tells how fast a reaction occurs after it has started.
To find the rate of a reaction, you can measure either how quickly one of the reactions is consumed or how quickly one of the products is created.

49. Temperature Changes Rate
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
Temperature Changes Rate
You can keep the food you buy at the store from spoiling so quickly by putting it in refrigerator or freezer.
Food spoiling is a chemical reaction.
Lowering the temperature of the food slows the rate of this reaction.

50. Temperature Changes Rate
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
Temperature Changes Rate
Meat and fish decompose faster at higher temperatures, producing toxins that can make you sick.
Keeping these foods chilled slows the decomposition process.
Bacteria grow faster at higher temperatures, too, so they reach dangerous levels sooner.

51. Temperature Affects Rate
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
Temperature Affects Rate
Most chemical reactions speed up when temperature increases.
Molecules collide more frequently at higher temperatures that at lower temperatures.
This means they are more likely to react.

52. Temperature Affects Rate
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
Temperature Affects Rate
This works the other way too.
Lowering the temperatures slows down most reactions.
If you set the oven temperature too low, your cake will not bake properly.

53. Concentration Affects Rate
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
Concentration Affects Rate
The closer reactant atoms and molecules are to each other, the greater the chance of collisions between them and the faster the reaction rate.

54. Concentration Affects Rate
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
Concentration Affects Rate
The amount of substance present in a certain volume is called the concentration of that substance.
If you increase the concentration, you increase the number of particles of a substance per unit of volume.

55. Surface Area Affects Rate
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
Surface Area Affects Rate
The exposed surface area of reactant particles also affects how fast the reaction can occur.
Only the atoms or molecules in the outer layer of the reactant material can touch the other reactants and react.

56. Rates of Chemical Reactions2
Slowing Down Reaction
A substance that slows down a chemical reaction is called an inhibitor.
And inhibitor makes the formation of a certain amount of product take longer.
Some inhibitors completely stop reactions.

57. Rates of Chemical Reactions2
Speeding Up Reactions
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction.
Catalysts do not appear in chemical equations, because they are not changed permanently or used up.

58. Rates of Chemical Reactions2
Speeding Up Reactions
Many catalysts speed up reaction rates by providing a surface for the reaction to take place.
Other catalysts reduce the activation energy needed to start the reaction.
When the activation energy is reduced, the reaction rate increases.

59. Rates of Chemical Reactions2
Catalytic Converters
Catalysts are used in the exhaust systems of cars and trucks to aid fuel combustion.
The exhaust passes through the catalyst, often in the form of beads coated with metals such as platinum or rhodium.

60. Rates of Chemical Reactions2
Catalytic Converters
Catalysts speed the reactions that change incompletely burned substances that are harmful, such as carbon monoxide, into less harmful substances, such as carbon dioxide.

61. Enzymes Are Specialists
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
Enzymes Are Specialists
Enzymes are large protein molecules that speed up reactions needed for your cells to work properly.
They help your body convert food to fuel, build bone and muscle tissue, convert extra energy to fat, and even produce other enzymes.

62. Enzymes Are Specialists
Rates of Chemical Reactions 2
Enzymes Are Specialists
Like other catalysts, enzymes function by positioning the reacting molecules so that their structures fit together properly.
Click image to view movie.

63. Rates of Chemical Reactions2
Other Uses
One class of enzymes, called proteases (PROH tee ay ses), specializes in protein reactions.
They work within cells to break down large, complex molecules called proteins.
Contact lens cleaning solutions contain proteases that break down proteins from your eyes that can collect on your lenses and cloud your view.

64. Section Check 2
Question 1
The minimum amount of energy required to start a reaction is called the _______.
Answer
Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to start a reaction.

65. Section Check 2
Question 2
Most chemical reactions _______ when temperature increases.
A. abate
B. remain the same
C. slow down
D. speed up

66. Section Check 2
Answer
The answer is D. Temperature has a direct effect on the reaction rate.

67. Section Check 2
Question 3
Most chemical reactions _______ when concentration increases.
A. remain the same
B. slow down
C. speed up
D. stop

68. Section Check 2
Answer
The answer is C. Higher concentration means a greater likelihood of collisions between the atoms in the reactants.

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