1. Chapter Five Leader Emergence: A Dynamic Process

2. 5-2 Emergent Leadership  Emergent leadership results from an interaction between the situational needs for certain knowledge, skills, and abilities, and the individual’s knowledge, skills, and abilities

3. 5-3 Figure 5.2 Leader Emergence and Entrenchment

4. 5-4 Reading 10 Emergent Leadership and Social Influence  Leader denotes an individual with a status that permits him to exercise influence over certain individuals  Status refers to the placement of an individual along a dimension, hierarchy, by virtue of some criterion of value  Before a status distinction can arise, two things must hold:  An arousal of a socially conditioned expectancy  A flow of information regarding the object person

5. 5-5 The Changing Approach To Leadership  Appointed leaders  Emergent leaders  The follower:  Accepts or rejects leadership  Perceives both the leader and the situation  Reacts in terms of what he perceives

6. 5-6 Viewpoints Concerning Leadership and Followership  A search for characteristics of the leader on the supposition that there is some universality among these  A concern with group-emergent leadership where popularity among followers may be of significance  A focus on situational factors that determine the demands made upon leadership and for leadership  An interest in the subtle interplay of motives and perceptions between followers and their leaders

7. 5-7 Implications of Emergent Status  The individual should be seen as competent in the group’s central task  The individual should be perceived as a member of the group  “Membership character”  Conformity to group expectancies is essential for acceptance

8. 5-8 Implications of Emergent Status  The idiosyncrasy credit refers to status as a consequence of being perceived by others as contributing to the group’s task and living up to expectancies applicable at any given time  These “credits” are in essence positively disposed impressions of a person held by others

9. 5-9 Reading 11 Who Gets Power—And How They Hold On To It  According to Warren Bennis, power “is the organization’s last dirty secret”  Traditional “political” power  Mechanisms for aligning an organization with its own reality  Institutionalized forms of power tend to buffer the organization from reality  Authority, legitimization, centralized control  Strategic-contingency theory  Power accrues to organizational subunits that cope with critical organizational problems

10. 5-10 Organizational Power  Power is simply the ability to get things done the way one wants them to be done  Subunits most able to cope with the organization’s critical problems and uncertainties acquire power  Power facilitates the organization’s adaptation to its environment  Power is shared because no one person controls all the desired activities in the organization

11. 5-11 Organizational Power  The amount of power an individual has depends on:  The activities he or she controls  The existence of other persons or means by which the activities can be achieved  Those who determine what ends are desired and what activities are desired and critical for the organization

12. 5-12 The Critical Contingencies  Power organizes around scarce and critical resources  The strategic-contingencies model implies that subunits that contribute to the critical resources of the organization will gain influence in the organization

13. 5-13 The Impact Of Organizational Power On Decision Making  Prudent and judicious persons are not likely to use their power needlessly or wastefully  Conditions that are likely to affect the use of power in organizations:  Scarcity  Criticality  Uncertainty

14. 5-14 Changing Contingencies and Eroding Power Bases  The critical contingencies facing the organization may change  The power of individuals and subgroups will change in turn  The dominant coalition will tend to be that group that is most appropriate for the organization’s environment

15. 5-15 Implications  To understand power in an organization, one must begin by looking outside it–into the environment  The real trick to managing power in organizations is to ensure that leaders cannot be unaware of the realities of their environments and cannot avoid changing to deal with those realities

16. 5-16 Conclusion  Power, because of the way it develops and the way it is used, will always result in the organization sub- optimizing its performance  If any criteria other than power were the basis for determining an organization’s decisions, the results would be even worse

17. 5-17 Chapter Six Leadership as an Influence Process

18. 5-18 Figure 6.1 The Leader Power—Follower Response Relationship

19. 5-19 Reading 12 The Bases of Social Power  The phenomena of power and influence involve a dyadic relation between two agents  What determines the behavior of the agent who exerts power?  What determines the reactions of the recipient of this behavior?  P is the person upon whom power is exerted

20. 5-20 Reward Power  It depends on O’s ability to administer positive valences and to remove negative valences  The utilization of actual rewards (instead of promises) by O will tend over time to increase the referent power of O over P  The range of reward power is specific to those regions within which O can reward P for conforming

21. 5-21 Coercive Power  This power stems from the expectation of P that he will be punished by O if he fails to conform to the influence attempt  Coercive power leads to dependent change  Reward power will tend to increase the attraction of P toward O; coercive power will decrease this attraction

22. 5-22 Legitimate Power  This power stems from internalized values in P which dictate that:  O has a legitimate right to influence P  P has an obligation to accept this influence  Bases for legitimate power  Cultural values  Acceptance of the social structure  Designation by a legitimizing agent

23. 5-23 Legitimate Power  Range of legitimate power of O/P  Areas in which legitimate power may be exercised are specified along with the designation of that power  The use of legitimate power which is outside the range of legitimate power will decrease the power of the authority figure  Legitimate power and influence  The system which results from legitimate power usually has high dependence on O though it may become independent

24. 5-24 Referent Power  The referent power of O/P has its basis in the identification of P with O  A feeling of oneness of P with O  O has the ability to influence P, even though P may be unaware of this referent power  The basic distinction between referent power and both coercive and reward power is the mediation of the punishment and the reward by O

25. 5-25 Expert Power  The strength of the expert power of O/P varies with the extent of the knowledge or perception which P attributes to O within a given area  Expert power results in primary social influence on P’s cognitive structure and probably not on other types of systems  The range of expert power is more delimited than that of referent power  The expert is seen as having superior knowledge or ability in very specific areas

26. 5-26 Reading 13 Relationships between Leader Reward and Punishment Behavior and Group Processes and Productivity  Understanding the relationship between leaders and groups is important because:  Leaders emerge from groups  Leaders determine goals of groups  Leaders are influenced by groups  Two general classes of leader behavior that seem to be relevant to group processes and productivity are:  Leader reward  Punishment behaviors

27. 5-27 Leader Behavior and Group Cohesiveness  Byrne has hypothesized that we:  Are attracted to those individuals or groups in whose presence we receive rewards  Are not attracted to those individuals or groups in whose presence we are punished  Leader contingent reward behavior is:  Positively related to perceptions of group cohesion  Negatively related to this criterion variable

28. 5-28 Leader Behavior And Group Drive  Zander views the group’s aspiration level to be a function of individual group members’ perceptions of the probability that the group will be able to achieve success and avoid failure  Leader contingent reward and contingent punishment behavior is positively related to group members’ perceptions of group drive  Leader noncontingent reward and noncontingent punishment behavior is not related to group drive

29. 5-29 Leader Behavior and Group Productivity  Stogdill has reported that group drive is positively related to group productivity  Zander has noted that group drive may result in group productivity when group members are provided with accurate performance feedback  Group members’ perceptions of:  Leader contingent reward and punishment behaviors is positively related to their perceptions of group productivity  Leader noncontingent reward and punishment behaviors is not related to the perceptions of group productivity

30. 5-30 Assumptions Underlying Expectations  Respondents in the present study are in functioning groups  No competition or work-flow interdependence exists among group members

31. 5-31 Discussion and Conclusions  Leaders who reward individuals appropriately also reward the group as a whole when it performs well or succeeds on a task  Several studies suggest that:  Individually administered monetary rewards are more effective when the tasks subordinates perform are independent  Rewards based on group performance are more effective when tasks are additive or require cooperation

32. 5-32 Discussion and Conclusions  There is a consistent positive relationship between contingent punishment behavior and group drive and productivity  Leaders who administer evaluative rewards and punishments contingently will have a more functional effect on:  Subordinate performance and satisfaction  Group outcomes

33. 5-33 Reading 14 Cooperation as a Function of Leader Self- Sacrifice, Trust, and Identification  One of the core functions of leadership is to motivate individuals to cooperate towards collective goals  Leaders’ ability to motivate individuals beyond self- interest is of key importance to the effectiveness of groups and organizations  Trust in the leader plays an important role in mediating the effects of leader self-sacrifice on follower cooperation

34. 5-34 Leader Self-sacrifice, Trust in the Leader, and Follower Cooperation  Self sacrificing leaders, compared with self- benefiting leaders, are better able to motivate group members to cooperate with the collective  A key process that plays a role in explaining the psychology of self sacrificing leadership is trust in the leader  A trustworthy leader communicates that the intentions of the leader in the future will be fair and honest

35. 5-35 The Present Study  Hypotheses used in study 1  H1 - A self-sacrificing leader elicits more cooperation than a self-benefiting leader  H2 - A self-sacrificing leader elicits more trust than a self-benefiting leader  H3 - Trust in the leader mediates the effect of self- sacrifice on cooperation  Hypotheses used in study 2  H4 - A self-sacrificing leader promotes collective identification more than a self benefiting leader  H5 - Collective identification mediates the effect of self- sacrifice on cooperation

36. 5-36 Discussion  Leader self-sacrifice on behalf of the collective is an effective way to stimulate follower cooperation  Leader self-sacrifice was positively related to cooperation, and this relationship was mediated by followers’ trust in the leader  Charismatic and transformational leadership is positively related to follower identification

37. 5-37 Conclusion  Motivating individuals to go beyond self-interest and to cooperate towards collective goals and interests is of major importance for the internal functioning of groups and organizations  Self-sacrifice moves people beyond self-interest  There is still much to learn about leader self- sacrifice  Self sacrifice creates a “source of psychological comfort for the followers”