1. Lecture 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Course Instructor: HbR
GENERAL CHEMISTRY CHE 101
Lecture 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions
Course Instructor: HbR

2. Lecture Plan The Atomic Theory The Structure of an Atom
Atomic Number, Mass Number, Isotopes
Molecules and Ions
Compounds

3. The Atomic Theory
In the fifth century B.C. the Greek philosopher Democritus said matter consists of very small indivisible particles, named atomos (meaning indivisible).

4. The Atomic Theory
Antoine Lavoisier found that matter is not created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. Known as “father of modern chemistry.”

5. The Atomic Theory
English scientist and school teacher, John Dalton, formulated a precise definition of the individual building block of matter that we call atom.

6. Daltons atomic theory was based on the following hypotheses :
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements present is either an integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction.

7. Dalton’s Atomic Theory (Hypothesis no. 3)
Law of Definite Proportions (Joseph Proust 1799)
“different samples of the same compound always contain its constituent elements in the same proportion by mass”
 the ratio of the masses of different elements in a given compound is fixed,
 the ratio of the atoms in the compound is also constant.

8. Dalton’s Atomic Theory (Hypothesis no. 3)
Law of Multiple Proportions
“if two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in ratios of small whole number”

9. Dalton’s Atomic Theory (Hypothesis no. 4)
16 X
8 Y +
8 X2Y
Law of Conservation of Mass
“matter can be neither created nor destroyed”

10. Structure of the Atom
Atom is the basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical combination.
Atom has internal structure and the smaller particles are called subatomic particles- electron, proton and neutron.
The picture above is an example of the arrangement of the particles in an atom. Most of the atom is just empty space. The center of the atom consists of a positively charged nucleus of protons and neutrons that are surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. An atom is an extremely small particle of matter that retains its identity during chemical reactions. in an electrically neutral atom, the positive charge of the protons, combined with the negative charge of the electrons, would result in no charge because they would cancel each other out.

11. Electron Cathode Ray Tube Experiment: Discovery of Electron
By J. J. Thomson (1896)
Coated surface at the opposite end of the tube
Electrically charged plates
Magnet
Cathode Ray
In the 1980s many scientists became caught up in the study of radiation, the emission and transmission of energy through space in the form of waves. Information gained from this research contributed greatly to our understanding of atomic structure. One device used to investigate this phenomenon was a cathode ray tube, the forerunner of the television tube. It is a glass tube from which most of the air has been evacuated. When the two metal plates are connected to a high voltage source, the negatively charges plate, called the cathode, emits an invisible ray. The cathode ray is drawn to positively charged plate, called anode, where it passes through a hole and continues traveling to the other end of the tube. When the ray strikes the specially coated surface, it produces a strong florescence, or bright light.
Along with two electrically charged plates, a magnet was added to the outside of the cathode ray tube.
When the magnetic field is on and the electric field is off, the cathode ray strikes a point A.
When only the electric, field is on, the ray strikes point C.
When either the rays are off or they are on but balanced so that they cancel each other, the ray strikes a point B.
According to the electromagnetic theory, a moving charge body behaves like a magnet and can interact with electric and magnetic fields through which it passes. Because the cathode ray is attracted through positive charge and repelled by the plate contains negative charges, it must contain some negatively charged particles. That negatively charged particles are the electrons.
Glass tube

12. Cont..
Thomson measured the charge to mass ration (e/m) of the cathode particle.
In SI units the value is X 10 8 coulombs per gram.
Dutch Physicist H.A. Lorentz named these cathode particles ‘Electron’.
Millikan’s Measured charge of e- by his oil drop experiment and the value is X coulombs.

13. Millikan’s e- charge = -1.60x10-19 C
Thomson’s (charge/mass) of e- = x 108 C/g
Mass of electron = 9.10 x g

14. Structure of the Atom-Electron
An electron can be bound to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force.
Negatively charged.
A system of one or more electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom.
Mass
9.109×10−31kilograms/ 5.489×10−4 atomic mass units (amu)
charge
−1.602×10−19 coulomb

15. Proton The Nuclear Model of the Atom: Rutherford’s Experiment (+)
In this experiment, very thin foils of gold and other metals were used as targets for α particle from a radioactive source. They observed that the majority of the particles penetrated the foil either undeflected or with only a slight deflection. But every now and then an alpha particle was scattered at a large angle. In some instances, α particle actually bounced back in the direction from which it had come!
Rutherford later explained the structure of the atom in terms of new model- most of the space in atom is free. This explains why the majority of the alpha particles passed through the gold foil with little or no deflection. The atom’s positive charges, Rutherford proposed, are all concentrated in the nucleus, which is a dense central core within the atom. Whenever, an α particle came close to a nucleus in the scattering experiment, it experiences a large repulsive force and therefore a large deflection. Moreover, α particle travelling directly toward a nucleus would be completely repelled and its direction would be reversed.
ZnS screen

16. Rutherford’s postulation on nuclear atomic structure:
Atom has a tiny dense central core or the nucleus which contains practically the entire mass of the atom, leaving the rest if the atom almost empty.
The entire positive charge of the atom is located on the nucleus, while electrons were distributed in vacant space around it.
The electrons were moving in orbits or closed circular paths around the nucleus like planets around the sun.

17. Proton
As an atom is neutral and contains (-) charged electrons, it must contain equal amount of (+)ly charged particles.
Proton is positively charged particles and remains in the nucleus of the atom.
Mass
x g (1840 times the mass of e-)
charge
1.602×10−19 coulomb

18. Neutrons ? In 1932 Sir James Chadwick discovered neutron.
A stream of alpha particles were directed at a beryllium target.
He found that a new particle were ejected who has a property like γ ray. It has almost the same mass as the proton and has no charge.
Rutherford’s model of atomic structure left one major problem unsolved. It was known that, Hydrogen, the simplest atom, contains only one proton and that the helium atom contains two protons. Therefore, the ration of the mass of helium and hydrogen atom should be 2:1. (Electrons are much lighter than the proton; their contribution on atomic mass can be ignored) In reality the ration is 4:1. There must be another type of particle in the nucleus of the atom. In 1932, James Chadwick bombarded a sheet of beryllium with α particles, a very high energy radiation similar to γ ray was emitted from that metal. Later experiments showed that actually the ray consists of the third type of subatomic particle, and Chadwick named it ‘neutron’.
When beryllium is hit by the alpha particles, neutrons are emitted. The neutrons then hit a piece of paraffin (a substance rich in protons), which ejected protons into the ionization chamber. By observing the speed of these protons, Chadwick was able to calculate the mass of the neutron to be roughly the same as the proton.
More on note:
In 1932, James Chadwick, an English physicist who had worked with Rutherford, detected neutrons and measured their mass in an invisible game of billiards. He fired the neutrons at a block of paraffin wax, which has a high concentration of hydrogen and is therefore rich in protons. Some of the neutrons collided with protons in the wax and knocked them out. Chadwick could then detect these protons and measure their energy. Using his knowledge of energy and momentum, he was able to work out the mass of the neutrons from the range of energies of the protons that they knocked out. He found that its mass was slightly more than that of a proton. Chadwick, like Rutherford, used an ingenious method to probe into what cannot be seen. ?

19. Structure of the Atom-Neutron
Third type of subatomic particle.
Electronically neutral
Mass is slightly higher than proton
Remains with proton in the nucleus.
Mass
x 10-24
charge

20. Atomic Number
Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element.
In a neutral atom,
number of electrons = number of protons
Chemical identity of an atom is the ‘atomic number’.
Example:
atomic number of fluorine is 9. It means it has,
9 protons. /
proton number 9 indicates that the atom is ‘fluorine’ .

21. Mass Number
Mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
Mass number = numbers of protons+ numbers of neutrons
= atomic number + numbers of neutrons
Numbers of neutrons= ?
* Atomic number, mass number and numbers of protons and neutrons all must be positive integers(whole numbers)

22. Isotopes Atoms that have same atomic number but different mass number.
Most elements have two or more isotopes.
Example:
Mass number A
X :Element symbol
Atomic number Z
1H H(D) H(T) / U U

23. The Isotopes of Hydrogen
Deuterium
Tritium

24. Counting Protons, Neutrons & Electrons
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in C 14 6 ?
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in C 11 6 ?

25. 1. Give the number of proton, neutrons and electrons in each of the following species:80
199 Hg,
17 O, 8 80
200 Hg, 29
63 Cu

26. Molecules
Molecules: is an aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical forces( bonds).
Molecules can contain atoms of same elements or different elements.
They should join in a fixed ratio.
Electrically neutral like atom.

27. Molecules
Of all the elements, only the six noble gases in Group 8A exist in nature as single atoms, called monatomic gases.
Most matter is composed of molecules or ions
formed by atoms.

28. A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms.
diatomic elements
H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO
A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms.
O3, H2O, NH3, CH4 H2
H2O
NH3
CH4

29. Ions
An Ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge.
The number of “Proton” in the nucleus remains same during chemical reaction.
“electrons” are lost/gained during a reaction.
The loss of 1/more electrons from a neutral atom results “cation” : an ion with (+) charge .
The gain of 1/more electrons from a neutral atom results “anion”: an ion with (-) charge.
NaCl is an ionic compound, because it is composed of cation (Na+) and Anion (Cl-)

30. Ions cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation. Na
11 protons
11 electrons
Na+
11 protons
10 electrons
anion – ion with a negative charge
If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
Cl-
17 protons
18 electrons Cl
17 protons
17 electrons

31. Ions
An atom can loss or gain more than one electron. Example of ions formed by the loss or gain of more than one electron are Mg2+, Fe3+, S2- and N3-. These ions, as well as Na+, Cl- are called mono atomic ions. Because they contain one atom. In addition, Two or more atoms can combine to make ions that has net positive or net negative charges, they are polyatomic ions, eg, OH-, CN-, NH4+ etc.
NaCl is an ionic compound, because it is composed of cation (Na+) and Anion (Cl-)

32. Monatomic Ions & Polyatomic Ions
A monatomic ion contains only one atom
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-
A polyatomic ion, also known as a molecular ion, is a charged chemical species (ion) composed of two or more atoms covalently bonded or of a metal complex that can be considered to be acting as a single unit.
OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

33. Counting Protons, Neutrons & Electrons
How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in ? Al 27 13 3+
13 protons,
14 neutrons,
10 (13 – 3) electrons
How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in ? Se 78 34 2-
34 protons,
44 neutrons,
36 (34 + 2) electrons

34. Compounds
A chemical compound is a pure chemical substance consisting of two or more different chemical elements that can be separated into simpler substances by chemical reactions.
Chemical compounds have a unique and defined chemical structure; they consist of a fixed ratio of atoms.
They are held together in a defined spatial arrangement by chemical bonds.

35. Compounds Characteristic properties of compounds:
Elements in a compound are present in a definite proportion
Example- 2 atoms of hydrogen + 1 atom of oxygen becomes 1 molecule of compound-water.
Compounds have a definite set of properties
Elements that comprise a compound do not retain their original properties.

36. Naming Compounds Organic compounds Contain carbon.
Usually in combination with elements such as H, O, N, and S.
Can contain functional groups.
Inorganic compounds
All other compounds are classified as inorganic compounds.
CO, CO2, CS2, and compounds containing CN−, CO32−, and HCO3− groups.

37. Naming Compounds
Inorganic compounds are divided into four categories:
Ionic compounds: often metal + non metals. e.g. Mg(OH)2, KNO3, NaCl etc.
Molecular compounds:nonmetal + nonmetal/metaloids. e.g. H2O
Acids and bases:H+ / proton donar/acceptor: acids and bases respectively. e.g: HCl, NaOH.
Hydrates: specific number of water molecules will be attached. e.g. BaCl2•2H2O : barium chloride dihydrate LiCl•H2O : lithium chloride monohydrate

38. CuSO4•5H2O
CuSO4

39. The elements can be divided into three categories—metals, nonmetals, and met-
alloids. A metal is a good conductor of heat and electricity, whereas a nonmetal is
usually a poor conductor of heat and electricity. A metalloid has properties that are
intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals.

40. Quiz 1
Thank You Practice mathematical related problems from Raymond Chang 9th/10th Ed.