1. COSMIC RAYS

2. At the Earth’ Surface We see cascades from CR primaries interacting with the atmosphere. Need to correct for that to understand their astronomical nature

3. What We Detect

4. Composition 98% nucleons (protons + heavier nuclei) 2% electrons and positrons At low energies (10 8 – 10 10 eV), we have 87% hydrogen 12% helium 1% heavier nuclei

5. Three Anomalies 1. Relative overabundance in light elements Li, Be, B 2.Slight underabundance of H (by number) 2.A striking deficiency of electrons WHY? 1.These are spallation products (heavier nuclei break up in collisions in the ISM 2.Supernova ejecta (accelerators of CRs) are relatively rich in heavy elements, less so in H.

6. Cosmic Ray Energies

7. Relativistic? Take γ > 1.05 to be ‘relativistic’ (that is, K.E. is large compared to rest-mass energy) Some cosmic rays have energies corresponding to γ ~ 10 11 - something we can’t do on Earth!

8. The Spectrum Linear in a log-log plot: a power law J (E) = K E –Γ (consider the units!) Γ is the spectral index; has a value of ~2.7 - 3

9. Meaning? Low-energy CRs are abundant, high-energy ones are very rare (but staggering!)

10. Not a Single Power Law Some structure: a knee, an ankle What does this tell us?

11. How About Electrons? We see the same sort of law, but the low-energy ones are strongly modulated by the solar wind After correction for that, J e (E) = 412 E -3.44 (between 3 GeV and 2 TeV) Note that this is STEEPER than for nucleons. Why?

12. Electrons Lose Energy 1.Through synchrotron radiation; and 2.Because of inverse Compton scattering

13. Synchrotron Radiation (We come back to this in Chapter 8.)

14. In Astronomy (need electrons moving at relativistic speeds) In the general galactic magnetic field; in pulsars

15. Compton Scattering? In Compton scattering, slow-moving electrons are invested with some energy by collisions with photons (that lose some energy)

16. Inverse Compton Here, relativistic electrons lose energy to radiation with which they interact e.g. relativistic electrons interact with the sea of low-energy photons in the cosmic microwave background

17. The Origin of Cosmic Rays Very high energies! (~10 20 eV) (LHC can reach only ~10 13 per proton, a factor of ten million less!) Can we identify the sources?

18. Problems CRs are deflected by magnetic fields (all but the most energetic) so their arrival direction does not point back to the source. Low energy CRs are from the Sun (the ‘solar wind’; flux depends on solar cycle and activity: the ‘solar modulation’)

19. Supernovae Higher energy CRs are from outside the Solar System, probably from supernovae. They would be accelerated by the Fermi acceleration mechanism, involving reflections from magnetic fields in shock waves etc. Sometimes this yields gamma rays that are not deflected by interstellar magnetic field, could point back to the source. Follow this link: Proof that supernovae are the source of Cosmic Rays

20. The Highest Energies Above the knee, CRs have enough energy to escape the galaxy. Those we receive could be from other galaxies. But there is a limit to how far they can travel: the protons interact with CMBR photons and degrade. The GZK energy marks this important distinguishing point.