1. Thermonuclear Reactions in the Sun

2. No Need for Confinement! The enormous self-gravity of the sun holds it together. There is no way the fuel can escape (or the sun can blow itself apart). So the nuclear reactions just keep ‘ ticking away ’ in the hot central regions, slowly and steadily releasing the energy that keeps the sun in equilibrium.

3. A ‘ Solar Model ’

4. Turning Hydrogen into Helium Atomic masses: Hydrogen 1, Helium 4 Atomic masses: Hydrogen 1, Helium 4 The Hydrogen nucleus is a proton The Hydrogen nucleus is a proton Helium contains two protons (positively charged) and two neutrons (uncharged) Helium contains two protons (positively charged) and two neutrons (uncharged)

5. The Fundamental Effect 4 H  He + energy 4 H  He + energy (from E = mc 2 )

6. One Obvious Problem How can 4 protons (4 H) merge to produce a Helium with 2 protons and 2 neutrons? The masses add up pretty well – although a little bit vanishes -- but where do the extra positive charges go? (Remember that charge is conserved – it cannot simply vanish!)

7. A Second Problem What are the chances of four protons running into each other all at the same time to form a Helium nucleus? Answer: slim to none.

8. A Frequent Occurence

9. Much Less Frequent…

10. Exploring The Analogy Two-car accidents are much more common than multiple-car collisions. So too with the atomic nuclei in the stars. So too with the atomic nuclei in the stars. A proton has a good chance of running into another single proton, but not three at once!

11. Instead: A Chain of Events

12. Another Visualisation

13. …and yet again: The Proton-proton (pp) Chain

14. Important Things to Note Net effect: 4 H  1 He + energy (Note that only a fraction of the original mass is converted to energy via E = mc 2. Less than 1% of it vanishes, with a big lump of He being left over.) Positrons are created Neutrinos are released (more on this later!)

15. Meet The Positron:`Antimatter ’ For every type of particle, there is an antiparticle. When they meet, they annihilate completely and are converted to energy. They have equal masses. If they are charged, they must have opposite charges (conservation law). The positron (+) is the anti-electron (-).

16. What Use Is a Positron? It can ’ t be contained: it will annihilate with an electron the instant they meet. We can’t build vacuum chambers empty enough to prevent this happening quickly! But we use them every day in hospitals, in PET scans (Positron Emission Tomography) They meet electrons and create gamma rays.

17. PET in Diagnostics But how do we get positrons into the body?

18. Not Just From Nuclear Reactions! Positrons are also emitted by some naturally radioactive isotopes. These can be included in organic molecules and ingested, then go to the tumour.

19. PET Scans Radioactive elements produce the positrons right where we need them! PET Scans Radioactive elements produce the positrons right where we need them!