1. Deadlocks Introduction to Operating Systems: Module 7

2. Deadlocks u System Model u Deadlock Characterization u Methods for Handling Deadlocks u Deadlock Prevention u Deadlock Avoidance u Deadlock Detection u Recovery from Deadlock u Combined Approach to Deadlock Handling

3. The Deadlock Problem u A set of blocked processes each holding a resource and waiting to acquire a resource held by another process in the set. u Example  System has 2 tape drives.  P 1 and P 2 each hold one tape drive and each needs another one. u Example  semaphores A and B, initialized to 1 P 0 P 1 wait (A);wait(B) wait (B);wait(A)

4. Bridge Crossing Example u Traffic only in one direction. u Each section of a bridge can be viewed as a resource. u If a deadlock occurs, it can be resolved if one car backs up (preempt resources and rollback). u Several cars may have to be backed upif a deadlock occurs. u Starvation is possible.

5. System Model u Resource types R 1, R 2,..., R m CPU cycles, memory space, I/O devices u Each resource type R i has W i instances. u Each process utilizes a resource as follows:  request  use  release

6. Deadlock Characterization u Mutual exclusion: only one process at a time can use a resource. u Hold and wait: a process holding at least one resource is waiting to acquire additional resources held by other processes. u No preemption: a resource can be released only voluntarily by the process holding it, after that process has completed its task. These conditions must exist for deadlock to arise

7. Deadlock Characterization u Circular wait: there exists a set {P 0, P 1, …, P n } of waiting processes such that:  For 0 < i < n, P i is waiting for a resource help by P i+1  P n is waiting for a resource help by P 1. P3P3 P2P2 P1P1 This condition indicates that deadlock has occurred

8. Resource-Allocation Graph u E = edge set, V = vertex set u V is partitioned into two types:  P = {P 1, P 2, …, P n }, the set consisting of all the processes in the system.  R = {R 1, R 2, …, R m }, the set consisting of all resource types in the system. u request edge – directed edge P 1  R j u assignment edge – directed edge R j  P i

9. Resource-Allocation Graph u Process u Resource Type with 4 instances u P i requests instance of R j u P i is holding an instance of R j PiPi PiPi RjRj RjRj

10. Example of a Resource Allocation Graph

11. Resource Allocation Graph With A Deadlock

12. Resource Allocation Graph With A Cycle But No Deadlock

13. Basic Facts u If graph contains no cycles  no deadlock u If graph contains a cycle  if only one instance per resource type, then deadlock  if several instances per resource type, deadlock is possible, but not necessary

14. Methods for Handling Deadlocks u Deadlock avoidance  Check the state of the system before allocating resources u Deadlock prevention  Design the system so that one necessary deadlock condition cannot occur u Deadlock recovery  Allow the system to enter a deadlock state and then recover. u Ostrich algorithm  Ignore the problem and pretend that deadlocks never occur in the system; used by most operating systems, including UNIX

15. Deadlock Prevention u Mutual Exclusion – not required for sharable resources; must hold for nonsharable resources. u Hold and Wait – must guarantee that whenever a process requests a resource, it does not hold any other resources.  Require process to request and be allocated all its resources before it begins execution, or allow process to request resources only when the process has none  Low resource utilization; starvation possible

16. Deadlock Prevention u No Preemption –  If a process that is holding some resources requests another resource that cannot be immediately allocated to it, then all resources currently being held are released.  Preempted resources are added to the list of resources for which the process is waiting.  Process will be restarted only when it can regain its old resources, as well as the new ones that it is requesting. u Circular Wait – impose a total ordering of all resource types, and require that each process requests resources in an increasing order of enumeration.

17. Deadlock Avoidance u Simplest and most useful model requires that each process declare the maximum number of resources of each type that it may need. u The deadlock-avoidance algorithm dynamically examines the resource-allocation state to ensure that there can never be a circular-wait condition. u Resource-allocation state is defined by the number of available and allocated resources, and the maximum demands of the processes.

18. Safe State u When a process requests an available resource, system must decide if immediate allocation leaves the system in a safe state u System is in safe state if there exists a safe sequence of all processes u Sequence is safe if for each P i, the resources that Pi can still request can be satisfied by currently available resources + resources held by all the P j, with j<I  If P i resource needs are not immediately available, then P i can wait until all P j have finished  When P j is finished, P i can obtain needed resources, execute, return allocated resources, and terminate  When P i terminates, P i+1 can obtain its needed resources, and so on

19. Basic Facts u If a system is in safe state  no deadlocks u If a system is in unsafe state  possibility of deadlock u Avoidance  ensure that a system will never enter an unsafe state

20. Safe, unsafe, deadlock state spaces

21. Resource-Allocation Graph Algorithm u Claim edge P i  R j indicated that process P j may request resource R j ; represented by a dashed line u Claim edge converts to request edge when a process requests a resource u When a resource is released by a process, assignment edge reconverts to a claim edge u Resources must be claimed in advance

22. Resource-Allocation Graph For Deadlock Avoidance

23. Unsafe State In A Resource- Allocation Graph

24. Banker’s Algorithm u Multiple instances of each resource u Each process must a priori claim maximum use u When a process requests a resource it may have to wait u When a process gets all its resources it must return them in a finite amount of time

25. Data Structures for the Banker’s Algorithm u Available: Vector of length m. If available [j] = k, there are k instances of resource type R j available. u Claim: n x m matrix. If Claim [i,j] = k, then process P i may request at most k instances of resource type R j. u Allocation: n x m matrix. If Allocation[i,j] = k then P i is currently allocated k instances of R j. u Need: n x m matrix. If Need[i,j] = k, then P i may need k more instances of R j to complete its task Need [i,j] = Claim[i,j] – Allocation [i,j] Let n = number of processes, and m = number of resources types

26. Safety Algorithm 1.Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively. Initialize: Work = Available Finish [i] = false for i - 1,3, …, n. 2.Find and i such that both: (a) Finish [i] = false (b) Need i  Work If no such i exists, go to step 4. 3.Work = Work + Allocation i Finish[i] = true go to step 2. 4.If Finish [i] = true for all i, the system is in a safe state

27. Resource-Request Algorithm Request i = request vector for process P i. If Request i [j] = k then process P i wants k instances of resource type R j 1.If Request i  Need i go to step 2. Otherwise, raise error condition, since process has exceeded its maximum claim. 2.If Request i  Available, go to step 3. Otherwise P i must wait, since resources are not available. 3.Pretend to allocate requested resources to P i by modifying the state as follows: Available = Available - Request i Allocation i = Allocation i + Request i Need i = Need i – Request i If safe  the resources are allocated to P i If unsafe  P i must wait, and the old resource-allocation state is restored

28. Example of Banker’s Algorithm u 5 processes P 0 through P 4 ; 3 resource types  A has 10 instances, B has 5 instances, and C has 7 instances u Snapshot at time T 0 : AllocationClaimAvailable A B CA B C A B C P 0 0 1 07 5 3 3 3 2 P 1 2 0 0 3 2 2 P 2 3 0 2 9 0 2 P 3 2 1 1 2 2 2 P 4 0 0 24 3 3

29. Example of Banker’s Algorithm u The content of the matrix Need is defined to be:  Claim – Allocation Need A B C P 0 7 4 3 P 1 1 2 2 P 2 6 0 0 P 3 0 1 1 P 4 4 3 1 u The system is in a safe state since the sequence satisfies safety criteria.

30. Example of Banker’s Algorithm u Check that Request  Available  that is, (1,0,2)  (3,3,2)  true. AllocationNeedAvailable A B CA B CA B C P 0 0 1 0 7 4 3 2 3 0 P 1 3 0 20 2 0 P 2 3 0 2 6 0 0 P 3 2 1 1 0 1 1 P 4 0 0 2 4 3 1 u Executing safety algorithm shows that sequence satisfies safety requirement.  Can request for (3,3,0) by P 4 be granted?  Can request for (0,2,0) by P 0 be granted?

31. Deadlock Detection u Allow system to enter deadlock state u Detection algorithm u Recovery scheme

32. Single Instance of Each Resource Type u Maintain wait-for graph  Nodes are processes  P i  P j if P i is waiting for P j u Periodically invoke an algorithm that searches for a cycle in the graph u An algorithm to detect a cycle in a graph requires an order of n 2 operations, where n is the number of vertices in the graph

33. Several Instances of a Resource Type u Available: A vector of length m indicates the number of available resources of each type u Allocation: An n x m matrix defines the number of resources of each type currently allocated to each process u Request: An n x m matrix indicates the current request of each process. If Request [i, j] = k, then process P i is requesting k more instances of resource type. R j

34. Detection Algorithm 1.Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively Initialize: (a) Work = Available (b)For i = 1,2, …, n, if Allocation i  0, then Finish[i] = false;otherwise, Finish[i] = true. 2.Find an index i such that both: (a)Finish[i] = false (b)Request i  Work If no such i exists, go to step 4.

35. Detection Algorithm 3.Work :Work + Allocation i Finish[i] = true go to step 2. 4.If Finish[i] = false, for some i, 1  i  n, then the system is in deadlock state. Moreover, if Finish[i] = false, then P i is deadlocked. Algorithm requires an order of m x n 2 operations to detect whether the system is in deadlocked state

36. Example of Detection Algorithm u Five processes P 0 through P 4 ; three resource types A (7 instances), B (2 instances), and C (6 instances). u Snapshot at time T 0 : AllocationRequestAvailable A B C A B C A B C P 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P 1 2 0 0 2 0 2 P 2 3 0 30 0 0 P 3 2 1 1 1 0 0 P 4 0 0 2 0 0 2 u Sequence will result in Finish[i] = true for all i.

37. Example u P 2 requests an additional instance of type C. Request A B C P 0 0 0 0 P 1 2 0 1 P 2 0 0 1 P 3 1 0 0 P 4 0 0 2 u State of system?  Can reclaim resources held by process P 0, but insufficient resources to fulfill other processes; requests.  Deadlock exists, consisting of processes P 1, P 2, P 3, and P 4.

38. Detection-Algorithm Usage u When, and how often, to invoke depends on:  How often a deadlock is likely to occur?  How many processes will need to be rolled back?  At least one for each disjoint cycle  At most one for each cycle u If detection algorithm is invoked arbitrarily, there may be many cycles in the resource graph and so we would not be able to tell which of the many deadlocked processes “caused” the deadlock

39. Recovery from Deadlock u Abort all deadlocked processes. u Abort one process at a time until the deadlock cycle is eliminated. u In which order should we choose to abort?  Priority of the process  How long process has computed, and how much longer to completion  Resources the process has used  Resources process needs to complete  How many processes will need to be terminated  Is the process interactive or batch?

40. Recovery from Deadlock u Selecting a victim – minimize cost u Rollback – return to some safe state, restart process fro that state u Starvation – same process may always be picked as victim, include number of rollback in cost factor

41. Combined Approach u Combine the three basic approaches  prevention  avoidance  detection allowing the use of the optimal approach for each of resources in the system. u Partition resources into hierarchically ordered classes. u Use most appropriate technique for handling deadlocks within each class

42. The Dining Philosophers Problem u 5 philosophers who only eat and think u each need to use 2 chopsticks for eating u only have 5 chopsticks u A classical synchronization problem u Illustrates the difficulty of allocating resources among process without deadlock and starvation

43. The Dining Philosophers Problem u Each philosopher is a process u One semaphore per fork:  fork: array[0..4] of semaphores  Initialization: fork[i].count:=1 for i:=0..4 u A first attempt: u Deadlock if each philosopher start by picking his left fork! Process Pi: repeat think; wait(fork[i]); wait(fork[i+1 mod 5]); eat; signal(fork[i+1 mod 5]); signal(fork[i]); forever