Electricity Markets 1

Content  Market Overview in Electric Power Systems  Basic Concepts from Economics  Markets for Electrical Energy  Participating in Markets for Electrical Energy  Price-Based Unit Commitment  System Security and Ancillary Services  Transmission Networks and Electricity Markets  Investing in Generation  Investing in Transmission  Security-Constrained Unit Commitment

ويژگيهاي بنيادي صنعت برق 3

ويژگيهاي بنيادي صنعت برق ويژگيهاي بنيادي صنعت برق از ديدگاه فني از ديدگاه فني از ديدگاه زيست محيطي از ديدگاه زيست محيطي از ديدگاه اقتصادي از ديدگاه اقتصادي از ديدگاه ملي ( زيرساختارها ) از ديدگاه ملي ( زيرساختارها ) 4

از ديدگاه فني  پيچيدگي و سطح بالاي فن آوري  عدم امكان ذخيره سازي برق در مقياس تجاري و كلان  لزوم ايمني، دقت و استاندارد بالا در بهره برداري تاسيسات  زمان بر بودن طراحي و احداث تاسيسات  سهولت تبديل به ديگر انواع انرژي  راحتي انتقال انرژي الكتريكي  بازدهي متوسط به هنگام تبديل ديگر انرژيها به انرژي الكتريكي 5

از ديدگاه زيست محيطي  انرژي الكتريكي يك انرژي پاك محسوب ميشود، چون : در هنگام مصرف برخلاف سوختهاي فسيلي آلودگي ايجاد نمي كند. بسياري از روشهاي توليد برق عاري از آلودگيهاي زيست محيطي است. در برخي روشهاي توليد برق گازهاي مضر و آلاينده هاي زيست محيطي انتشار مي يابند ولي :  نيروگاهها از مراكز جمعيتي فاصله داشته و كنترل آلودگي يك نيروگاه بسيار سهل تر و كم هزينه تر از الزام و هدايت مصرف كنندگان به استفاده مناسب از انرژيهاي حرارتي حاصل ازسوختهاي فسيلي است. 6

از ديدگاه زيرساختارهاي ملي  برق به عنوان يكي از زيرساختارهاي مهم  در امنيت ملي و ثبات سياسي اجتماعي كشور نقش تعيين كننده دارد.  در ميزان توليدات صنعتي و كشاورزي اثر مستقيم دارد  در زندگي روزمره مردم بويژه مناطق گرمسير داراي نقش مهمي است  نظامها و تسهيلات درون شهري بويژه شهرهاي بزرگ ( ، مترو ) به تداوم خدمات برق وابسته است. 7

از ديدگاه اقتصادي  بدليل بالا بودن سطح فن آوري هنوز احداث تاسيسات برق از ارزبري بالايي برخوردار است.  بدليل نياز به سرمايه گذاري بالا در بخشهاي توليد, انتقال و توزيع و لزوم بالابودن قابليت اطمينان, متغير بودن مصرف مشتركين و در نتيجه نياز به ذخيره گردان و پايين بودن ضريب بهره برداري : برق انرژي گران بوده و داراي قيمت تمام شده بالا مي باشد. ( كاهش هزينه تمام شده نيازمند تغيير در فن آوري در سطح جهاني مي باشد.)  بدليل نقس حساس برق در زندگي مردم و جامعه, نرخ برق علاوه بر عوامل اقتصادي به شدت متاثر از عوامل سياسي و اجتماعي است.  خسارت عدم تامين برق, 50 تا 100 برابر هزينه تمام شده برق است. 8

مروري بر تاريخچه صنعت برق 9

 در شروع شكل گيري، نيروگاههاي برق كوچك و توسط بخش خصوصي ايجاد و اداره ميشدند.  منطقه محدودي در اطراف نيروگاه از برق توليدي آن استفاده و نيازي به شبكه انتقال نبود.  مصرف كنندگان هزينه نسبتا بالائي براي بـــرق بعنوان يك كالاي تا حدودي تجملاتي پرداخت ميكردند.  با توسعه فن آوري توليد برق، نيروگاههاي بزرگتر با بازده بالاتر ساخته شدند.  شبكه هاي تحت پوشش نيروگاهها بتدريج بزرگتر و براي افزايش قابليت اطمينان و به دليل ملاحظات اقتصادي بهم متصل شدند. 10

 در بسياري از كشورها بخش خصوصي از ساخت و اداره نيـروگاههاي بزرگ و شبكه هاي بهم پيوسته انتقال ناتوان و دولتها اين وظايف را عهده دار شدند.  در تمام كشورها دولتها ناچار به دخالت براي اداره شبكه هاي بزرگ برق شدند و بناچار در اداره صنعت برق نقش بيشتري بر عهده گرفتند.  برق كه همواره يك كالاي انحصاري تلقي ميشد بتدريج شكل يك خدمت انحصاري كه دولت عرضه ميكند به خود گرفت.  هزينه هاي بالاي ارائه اين خدمت، كارآئي پائين صنعت برق بدليل عدم رقابت، هزينه هاي بالاي توسعه تاسيسات براي پاسخگوئي به مصرف روزافزون دولتها را نيز در اداره أين صنعت با مشكل مواجه ساخت. 11

 جداسازي بخشهاي توليد، انتقال و توزيع و سپس بخش فروش از خدمات فني توزيع بعنوان اولين قدم براي أيجاد فضاي رقابت در صنعت برق شكل گرفت.  براي رقابتي شدن صنعت برق و با توجه به انحصاري بودن شبكه هاي انتقال و توزيع مفهوم استخر (POOL) شكل گرفت. تمام توليد كنندگان توليد خود را در اين استخر واريز و تمام توزيع كنندگان عمده نياز خود را از آن برداشت ميكردند. مديريت استخر، با قيمتهاي رقابتي برق را از توليدكنندگان خريداري و به توزيع كنندگان عمده ميفروخت.  همزمان در بسياري از كشورها بخش خصوصي در توليد و فروش برق فعال شد. 12

 در قدم بعد مديريت استخر موظف شد امكانات انتقال را بصورت يكسان در اختيار تمام توليد كنندگان و توزيع كنندگان عمده قرار دهد و الزام خريد و فروش از طريق استخر برداشته شد.  در حال حاضر در بسياري از كشورها : برق مشابه ساير كالاها آزادانه خريد و فروش ميشود. بخش خصوصي در توليد و فروش آن مشاركت دارد. خدمات انحصاري انتقال و توزيع تحت نظارت در اختيار تمام توليدكنندگان و توزيع كنندگان ميباشد. نظارت توسط يك نهاد مستقل صورت ميگيرد. 13

1. تعريف و سابقه تجديد ساختار در صنعت برق 14

پيشگفتار سه دهه گذشته بعنوان سالهاي تجديد ساختار در صنعت برق در دنيا معرفي شده اند. تجديد ساختار در صنعت برق در اين سالها ابتدا در كشورهاي پيشرفته و بدنبال آن در كشورهاي در حال توسعه شكل گرفت و هنوز سالهاي تكامل خود را مي گذراند. تجديد ساختار در كشورهاي پيشرفته عمدتا از طريق گسترش رقابت و حذف انحصار در صنعت برق و با اهداف افزايش بهره وري اين صنعت و فراهم نمودن حق انتخاب براي مصرف كنندگان شكل گرفته است. در كشورهاي در حال توسعه اهداف ديگري از جمله تامين منابع براي گسترش توليد و تشويق بخش خصوصي به مشاركت در سرمايه گذاري نيز مد نظر بوده است. اين مهم از طريق فراهم نمودن محيط فاقد تبعيض و ايجاد امنيت براي سرمايه گذاران خصوصي تحقق مي پذيرد. 15

GenerationTransmission Networks (Distribution) Sales(Supply) Generation TransmissionDistributionSupply قبل از تجديد ساختار پس از تجديد ساختار سيستم قدرت 16

مسير مالي نيروگاه انتقال توزيع مصرف كننده مسير فيزيكي دو مسير براي عبور يك كالا خدمات جانبي و انتقال بازارهاي مختلف برق بهره بردار سيستم 17

تجديد ساختار چهار مرحله دارد : مجزا سازي (Unbundling) بازنگري در مقررات (Reregulation) ايجاد محيط رقابتي (Competition) خصوصي سازي (Privatization) 18/51

Deregulation is a re-structuring of the rules and economic incentives that government setup to control and drive the electric supply industry. It is known in different names –Re-regulated market –Open Power Market –Competitive power market –Vertically unbundled power system –Open access –Power system restructuring ( Privatization and deregulation) –Reforms 19

تاريخچه تجديد ساختار صنعت برق در غالب كشورها تا دو دهه آخرين قرن نوزدهم ميلادي با ساختاري يكپارچه كه وظيفه توليد، توزيع ، انتقال و خدمات مشتركين را بر عهده داشت اداره مي ‌ شد نخستين بار در سال 1968 ميلادي با طرح اين پرسش كه « چرا شركتهاي برق بايد داراي ساختاري تنظيم شده باشند ؟ » طبيعت انحصاري صنعت برق به چالش كشيده شد و ايده ايجاد رقابت عمومي در توليد توسط اين صنعت مورد توجه قرار گرفت. كشورهاي آمريكاي جنوبي از جمله آرژانتين و شيلي از اولين كشورهايي هستند كه به خصوصي سازي و ايجاد رقابت در صنعت برق در سال 1982 ميلادي اقدام نمودند. بدنبال تجربه موفق كشورهاي آمريكاي جنوبي، با تصويب قانون برق انگليس درسال 1989 (Electricity Act of 1989) ، صنعت برق اين كشور بعنوان اولين كشور اروپايي داراي تغييرات ساختاري عمده گرديد. تجديد ساختار و تغييرات قانونگذاري در صنعت برق كشور آمريكا داراي شروعي ديرتر از كشور انگليس مي ‌ باشد. در اين كشور قانون انرژي در 24 اكتبر سال 1992 بصورت رسمي توسط رئيس جمهوري وقت آمريكا به امضاء رسيد 20

پس از آمريكا تحولات ساختاري ابتدا در كشورهاي استراليا و كانادا و متعاقب آن در كشورهاي اروپايي و آسيايي نيز پيگيري گرديد. هدف معاهده سال 1957 رم بين جامعه اقتصادي اروپا، تاسيس يك بازار آزاد داخلي در اروپا بود كه بر اساس آن رقابت و جلوگيري از انحصار طي ساليان متمادي در اروپا تشويق گرديده است. تا سال 1990 ، لزوم سرمايه ‌ گذاري كلان در زمينه ‌ هاي توليد، انتقال و توزيع وجود انحصار توسط دولتها را در اين زمينه تا حدودي توجيه مي ‌ نمود. در تاريخ 29 اكتبر 1990 مصوبه ‌ اي با موضوع بحث عبور برق از شبكه ‌ هاي انتقال به تصويب شوراي اروپا رسيد. در تاريخ 19 دسامبر سال 1996 مصوبه ديگري در مورد بازار داخلي اروپا به تصويب رسيد بر اساس مصوبه مذكور در اين زمينه، اعضاء اتحاديه اروپا موظف شدند كه شرايط مناسبي را حداكثر تا پايان سال 2005 ميلادي بمنظور اطمينان از دسترسي توليدكنندگان و مشتريها به شبكه ‌ هاي انتقال و توزيع فراهم نمايند. 21

Private Ownership Public Competition Market Structure Monopoly Denmark Netherlands Germany Canada Norway NZ England and Wales Italy Sweden Spain USA Japan منبع: گزارش بانک جهانی جريان تجديد ساختار در طول سالهای 1987 تا

PJM (1998) Ontario (1998) Spain (1998) Nordpool (1996) Australia (1997) New- Zealand (1996) Argentina (1992) California (1998) Poland (2000) Germany (2000) France (2001) England-Wales (1990) Netherlands (1999) Italy (2004) Austria (2001) Ireland (1999) برخي از بازارهاي برق ايجاد شده در دنيا Romania (2004) Texas (2002) Chile (1988) Russia (2004) SA (2000) Ukraine (2001) Kazakstan (2004) Iran (2003) 23

Organization and Agents Over the last decades, the electric energy industry has evolved from a centralized operational paradigm to a competitive one in many countries all over the world. In 1996, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) enacted Order 888, a legal framework to increase competition in the US wholesale electricity markets by promoting open access to transmission networks. 24

In the same year, the European Union sponsored Directive 96/92/EC, aimed at the liberalization of the purchase of energy by qualified consumers in member states to establish the basic rules for a seminal European electricity market 25

This new competitive framework is intended to promote an increase in the operational efficiency of power systems while guaranteeing an acceptable quality of the electricity supply and achieving minimum cost for electricity end users. In addition, it is aimed to provide better incentives for capital formation, better incentives for consumers to not consume when costs exceed their benefits, and better incentives for research and development. 26

This restructuring process has enabled the liberalization of the electricity sector and the emergence of electricity markets worldwide. The pioneering liberalization process corresponds to what took place in Chile in In the early 1990s, the electricity pool created in England and Wales was the first such an experience in Europe. In the US, in 1998, the California Independent System Operator established a pool-based electricity market, which dramatically failed in 2000 due to design flaws. 27

US East Coast markets including PJM, ISO New England, and New York ISO started operation in 1997, 1999 and 1999, respectively, and have been successfully operating since them. The electricity markets in New Zealand and Australia started operating in 1996and 1998, respectively. 28

عوامل و انگيزه هاي تجديد ساختار نتايج درخشان تجديد ساختار و ايجاد رقابت در صنايعي مانند هواپيمايي، مخابرات ، گاز و... جبران كمبودهاي سرمايه گذاري توسط بخش غيردولتي افزايش بهره وري اقتصادی شفافيت هزينه ها در بخشهای توليد، انتقال و توزيع و امکان کنترل آن ايجاد محيط رقابتی و جلوگيري از انحصار كاهش تصدي گري دولت با حضور بخش خصوصی مشتري مداری با ترويج رقابت الزام تبعيت از قوانين بين المللي و شرايط منطقه اي بمنظور تامين شرايط لازم براي پيوستن به پروتكلهاي منطقه اي ( همچون برخي كشورهاي عضو اتحاديه اروپا ). 29

محرکهای عمده تحولات در صنعت برق 1- فشار سرمایه گذاران بخش غیر دولتی برای ورود به بازارانحصاری برق و کسب سود 2- فشارهای ناشی از مصرف کنندگان برق (مصرف کنندگان عمده) برای کاهش قیمت برق از طریق شکستن بازار انحصاری 3- فشارهای ناشی از کمبود منابع که پاسخگوی سرمایه گذاری کافی برای تامین نیازهای روز افزون برق باشد 4- نظریه غالب برتری مکانیزم بازار در مقایسه با مکانیزم برنامه ریزی متمرکز 30

Forces behind the deregulation are –High tariffs and over staffing –global economic crisis –regulatory failure –political and ideological changes –managerial inefficiency –lack of public resources for the future development –technological advancement –rise of environmentalism –pressure of financial institutions –Rise in public awareness 31

Fundamental Drivers  Two fundamental trends in society are important drivers in the long-term development of the electrical power system.  The first trend is the demand for cost efficiency, which has triggered a wave of deregulation and liberalization initiatives in various industries that used to be operated under regulation (e.g. aviation, railway, telecommunication, gas, and electricity). 32

 The second trend is the increased public awareness of the environmental consequences caused by the increasing use of energy in the world.  This aspect drives the search for new and cleaner technologies to generate electricity.  The two trends, economic efficiency and environmental responsibility, contribute to change the conditions under which the participants in the electrical power system operate.  The objective behind power system liberalisation is to increase the competition, and thereby also the economic efficiency in the operation of the electrical power system. Fundamental Drivers 33

 One important consequence of the liberalisation is that the traditional regulated utilities shift their focus from cost minimisation to profit maximisation in the segments of their operation where competition is introduced.  At the same time, uncertainty plays a more prominent role, as stochastic factors are immediately reflected in the power market’s spot prices.  This is in contrast to the regulated system, where uncertainties very rarely have an effect on the regulated tariffs. Fundamental Drivers 34

Fundamental Drivers  Another general effect, which can also add to the increased uncertainty, is a higher degree of decentralised decision making in the system. 35

 The increased environmental concern is mainly reflected in regulations whose aim is to curb (restrain) polluting emissions from power generation.  Tradable certificates for renewable power generation and limits, quotas, and taxes on emissions from power plants are examples of such environmental regulations.  While the drive towards competitive markets in general induces fewer regulations in the system, the drive towards less environmental impact tends to introduce more regulations. Fundamental Drivers 36

Operation and Organisation  The shift towards liberalised and competitive power markets has led to a major change in how electrical power systems are being operated and organised.  Electrical power systems are large-scale, integrated, and complex engineering systems which need a certain level of centralised coordination to function.  Besides, electric power has a set of special features which makes it different from most other commodities that are traded in competitive markets. 37

 The list of special features includes instant and continuous generation and consumption, non-storability, high variability in demand over day and season, and non- traceability (i.e. a unit of consumed electricity can not be traced back to the actual producer).  At the same time electricity is an essential good for society, and we know that blackouts with huge detrimental (damaging) effects can occur if the system is not maintained under control.  Furthermore, generation and transmission of electricity are highly capital intensive businesses. Special Features 38

 Large up-front investments ahead of time (about payment or investment) can easily deter (discourage) new participants from entering the market, and thereby prevent efficient competition.  It is therefore obvious that special attention is essential in the process of liberalising and restructuring the electrical power system.  There is currently no real consensus (general agreement) among researchers and industry practitioners about what is the ideal organisation of a liberalised market for electricity.  The optimal solution will necessarily depend on the physical character of the power system in question, and different market designs are implemented in various parts of the world. Special Features 39

 The organisation of the power system can be split into two separate parts, which are operated under different regulatory regimes.  The transmission and distribution of electric power are natural monopolies, and usually subject to strict public regulation.  The cost of operating the transmission and distribution system is therefore transferred to the end users in terms of tariffs. Organisation 40

Organisation  On the other hand, generators and end-users have open access to the grid and operate in a competitive market.  The wholesale price of electric power is settled through market mechanisms, and transferred to end users through the supply prices.  In order to facilitate such an arrangement the traditional utilities must be unbundled, i.e. the generation and supply parts are separated from transmission and distribution. 41

Organisation 42

System operator  The system operator plays a very important role in the coordination and operation of the power system, and is responsible for always keeping supply equal to demand.  Trading between generators and end users in the power market provides equilibrium between expected supply and demand.  However, in order to keep the balance in real time under various contingencies, the system operator needs to purchase so called ancillary services.  Congestion management and transmission pricing are also the responsibilities of the system operator. 43

Transmission provider  The transmission provider owns and operates the high voltage transmission grid in the power system.  The system operator and the transmission provider can be the same entity, like in the Nordic countries, where the system operators own the main grids in the respective countries.  However, the grid can also be owned by separate companies and coordinated through an independent system operator (ISO), as is frequently the case in the US.  The costs related to running the transmission grid (investments, operating costs, transmission losses etc.) are recovered from the transmission tariff. 44

Distribution company (DistCo)  The distribution companies are responsible for operating the lower voltage grids, and ensure that end users have access to their local network.  This is also a monopoly service and total costs for investment and operation of the distribution grid is reflected in the distribution tariff. 45

T/D Regulator  Transmission and distribution (T/D) are regulated as natural monopolies.  The T/D regulator controls that there is open access to the T/D grid, and also regulates the tariffs and revenues for the transmission provider and the distribution companies. 46

Generation and Supply (Generators)  The generators are responsible for feeding sufficient electricity into the grid.  With open access to the network there is wholesale competition between generators of various technologies and ownership.  The generators bid their power generation into the market, either through an organised power exchange or via bilateral contracts. 47

End users  The end users usually participate in the power market through suppliers.  Competition on the supply level ensures that the end users can buy their electricity from which supplier they want.  Large scale customers with real time metering can also be able to participate directly in the wholesale electricity markets, by submitting their bids to the power exchange or directly to a generator. 48

Suppliers  Suppliers represent end users in the wholesale market for electricity.  Their bids into the market reflect the preferences of their customers.  While the distribution company takes care of the physical transfer of power to the end users, the suppliers are responsible for the financial transactions between end users and generators.  The metering of the end users is sometimes also the responsibility of the supplier.  However, in the Norwegian system the distribution companies are mandated to take care of the metering. 49

Market operator  The market operator is responsible for organising a public power exchange.  A range of different products will typically be traded at the power exchange, from physical day ahead contracts to financial forward contracts with delivery several years into the future.  Bilateral contracts serve as supplements to the contracts traded at the power exchange.  In some other systems, for instance in the Northeast US (PJM, New York, New England), the system and market operator is the same entity.  A separate entity owned by the system operators in Norway and Sweden. 50

G/S Regulator  Regulation is still needed, even if the supply and demand for electric power is organised through a competitive market.  An important responsibility for the generation and supply (G/S) regulator is to define rules for how the power market is operated.  The G/S regulator is also responsible for preventing that participants can dominate the market and exercise market power. 51

G/S Regulator  The regulation of G/S and T/D could be accomplished by the same regulatory body.  However, in Norway there are two different entities involved in regulating the monopolistic and the competitive part of the electric power system. 52

Ancillary Services  The term “ancillary services” is an expression for the set of system services that the system operator relies on in order to maintain real-time balance and security of supply in the power system.  Different definitions exist for what is included in the ancillary services, and the exact list of services will also depend on the physical characteristics of the power system.  A hydro-dominated power system with a high fraction of generating units that can adjust their output on very short notice will typically need a different set of ancillary services than a thermal system with a majority of slowly responding generators. 53

Ancillary Services  However, the provision of operating reserves together with frequency and voltage control through balancing of real and reactive power in the system are always important elements of these services.  Some of the ancillary services, such as the instant balancing of real power in the system, can be organised through a market mechanism. 54

Ancillary Services  However, a problem when it comes to introducing full competition in the provision of ancillary services is that the system operator is usually the only participant in the power system that can coordinate and determine the demand for these services in real time.  It is difficult to create a market for ancillary services with an active and decentralised demand side. 55

The Balance between Competition and Regulation  The electrical power system is a demanding system to control, not only from an engineering perspective, but also from and economic and regulatory point of view.  There is a fundamental trade-off between the use of competition and regulation in order to provide cost efficiency and lower environmental impact, and at the same time maintain the security of supply in the power system 56

Balance between Competition and Regulation 57

 Establishing an appropriate line of separation between the monopolistic and competitive parts in the operation of the power system (Ancillary services)  Design of market rules that ensure efficient economic short- term operation of the electrical power system.  Correct locational price signals and market power mitigation are important topics in this respect Some important trade-offs 58

Some important trade-offs  Implementation of market rules and regulations that provide sufficient incentives for investments in the power system.  Such incentives are crucial for the long-term security of supply  Design of incentives which ensure that environmental considerations are taken into account in operation and expansion of the system.This is necessary to lower the environmental impacts of power generation 59