“Standard Model” of particles in the universe Figure 13.2: Radioactive elements may emit three types of radiation: electromagnetic radiation called gamma rays; fast-moving electrons called beta particles; and alpha particles, which are the nuclei of helium atoms. If radioactive material is placed at the bottom of a hole in a lead block, radiation will be emitted through the top. If the beam passes through an electric field, it will separate into the three types of radiation.

Structure of Neutron and Proton Figure 13.2: Radioactive elements may emit three types of radiation: electromagnetic radiation called gamma rays; fast-moving electrons called beta particles; and alpha particles, which are the nuclei of helium atoms. If radioactive material is placed at the bottom of a hole in a lead block, radiation will be emitted through the top. If the beam passes through an electric field, it will separate into the three types of radiation.

Structure of Helium Figure 13.2: Radioactive elements may emit three types of radiation: electromagnetic radiation called gamma rays; fast-moving electrons called beta particles; and alpha particles, which are the nuclei of helium atoms. If radioactive material is placed at the bottom of a hole in a lead block, radiation will be emitted through the top. If the beam passes through an electric field, it will separate into the three types of radiation.

Why isn’t the atomic mass 4 (actually 4.0028 amu)? Structure of Helium Figure 13.2: Radioactive elements may emit three types of radiation: electromagnetic radiation called gamma rays; fast-moving electrons called beta particles; and alpha particles, which are the nuclei of helium atoms. If radioactive material is placed at the bottom of a hole in a lead block, radiation will be emitted through the top. If the beam passes through an electric field, it will separate into the three types of radiation. Why isn’t the atomic mass 4 (actually 4.0028 amu)?

Why isn’t the atomic mass 4 (actually 4.0028 amu)? Structure of Helium Figure 13.2: Radioactive elements may emit three types of radiation: electromagnetic radiation called gamma rays; fast-moving electrons called beta particles; and alpha particles, which are the nuclei of helium atoms. If radioactive material is placed at the bottom of a hole in a lead block, radiation will be emitted through the top. If the beam passes through an electric field, it will separate into the three types of radiation. Why isn’t the atomic mass 4 (actually 4.0028 amu)?  Nuclear Binding Energy!

Why isn’t the atomic mass 4 (actually 4.0028 amu)?  Nuclear Binding Energy! Mass of one neutron: 1.00866 amu Mass of one proton: 1.00728 amu 2 x neutron + 2 x proton = 4.0319 amu Figure 13.2: Radioactive elements may emit three types of radiation: electromagnetic radiation called gamma rays; fast-moving electrons called beta particles; and alpha particles, which are the nuclei of helium atoms. If radioactive material is placed at the bottom of a hole in a lead block, radiation will be emitted through the top. If the beam passes through an electric field, it will separate into the three types of radiation.

Why isn’t the atomic mass 4 (actually 4.0028 amu)?  Nuclear Binding Energy! Mass of one neutron: 1.00866 amu Mass of one proton: 1.00728 amu 2 x neutron + 2 x proton = 4.0319 amu SO….Nuclear Binding Energy = 4.0319 – 4.0028 = 0.029 amu Or, 4.82 x 10-29 kg But, E = mc2 = (4.82 x 10-29 kg)(3 x 108 m/s)2 = 4.3 x 10-12 J (Joining the neutrons and protons to make helium nucleus releases the energy) Figure 13.2: Radioactive elements may emit three types of radiation: electromagnetic radiation called gamma rays; fast-moving electrons called beta particles; and alpha particles, which are the nuclei of helium atoms. If radioactive material is placed at the bottom of a hole in a lead block, radiation will be emitted through the top. If the beam passes through an electric field, it will separate into the three types of radiation.

Why isn’t the atomic mass 4 (actually 4.0028 amu)?  Nuclear Binding Energy! Mass of one neutron: 1.00866 amu Mass of one proton: 1.00728 amu 2 x neutron + 2 x proton = 4.0319 amu SO….Nuclear Binding Energy = 4.0319 – 4.0028 = 0.029 amu Or, 4.82 x 10-29 kg But, E = mc2 = (4.82 x 10-29 kg)(3 x 108 m/s)2 = 4.3 x 10-12 J One gram of helium (by fusion) = burning 23 tons of coal Figure 13.2: Radioactive elements may emit three types of radiation: electromagnetic radiation called gamma rays; fast-moving electrons called beta particles; and alpha particles, which are the nuclei of helium atoms. If radioactive material is placed at the bottom of a hole in a lead block, radiation will be emitted through the top. If the beam passes through an electric field, it will separate into the three types of radiation.

Figure 13.5: The nucleus of the carbon atom has a positive charge of 6. It is surrounded by six electrons, arranged in two major shells. The number of protons gives the element its atomic number.

Figure 13.8: Isotopes of hydrogen.

Figure 13.8: Isotopes of hydrogen.

Figure 13.8: Isotopes of hydrogen.

Radioactive Decay: Alpha, Beta, Gamma Figure 13.2: Radioactive elements may emit three types of radiation: electromagnetic radiation called gamma rays; fast-moving electrons called beta particles; and alpha particles, which are the nuclei of helium atoms. If radioactive material is placed at the bottom of a hole in a lead block, radiation will be emitted through the top. If the beam passes through an electric field, it will separate into the three types of radiation.

Radioactive Decay: Alpha Decay (atom loses helium nucleus)

Radioactive Decay: Beta Decay (atom loses electron; neutron turns to proton)

Radioactive Decay: Electron Capture (proton turns into neutron)

Zircon Crystals: Good for trapping in Uranium and Lead atoms (The oldest known zircon crystal in the solar system, from an Apollo 17 Moon rock: 4.42 billion years old)

Meteorites – oldest rocks on Earth Allende meteorite (carbonaceous chondrite)

The end result is a stable isotope (for U-238  Pb-206) Radioactive cascade The end result is a stable isotope (for U-238  Pb-206) Figure 13.9: Example of radioactive decay: the beginning of decay of 238U.

A Quick Look at Nuclear Power U.S. Electricity Sector - Nuclear nuclear power is major player in U.S. electricity industry 19. 4 % of electricity third major source behind: coal: 46.6 % natural gas: 21.5 % characteristics: despite no new plants since 1970s, percentage of electricity it produces has been growing many plants being re-licensed for another 20-30 years U.S. safety record has been stellar no fatalities, no injuries

A Quick Look at Nuclear Power U.S. Electricity Sector

A Quick Look at Nuclear Power Global Electricity Sector

A Quick Look at Nuclear Power Global Electricity Sector

A Quick Look at Nuclear Power Global Electricity Sector

A Quick Look at Nuclear Power Global Electricity Sector 61 new reactors (NEI, 2010) Taiwan – 2; Iran -1; Pakistan -1

Nuclear Physics Fundamental Forces

Nuclear Physics Balancing Nuclear Forces

Nuclear Physics Binding Curve

Nuclear Physics Nuclear Transformations the nuclear structure of atoms is changed by three different mechanisms: fission: splitting of heavy nuclei into two lighter ones with the releases of neutrons and energy spontaneous neutron-induced fusion: combining of two nuclei to make a new, heavier nuclei new nuclei has less mass than sum of two original nuclei radioactive decay: spontaneous emission of either particle or electromagnetic radiation by nuclei particle: alpha, beta, electron capture electromagnetic: gamma these processes are not influenced by physical conditions, e.g. pressure, temperature, etc.

Nuclear Physics Binding Curve Fission Fusion

Nuclear Physics Nuclide Chart

Nuclear Physics Nuclide Chart The nuclide shows the 254 naturally-occurring stable isotopes (black) that form the stable band. In addition, there are another about 46 radioactive isotopes with relatively long lives. In all the, nuclide chart depicts the 3,000 or so known isotopes. Of these the vast majority are human produced with very short half-lifes.

Nuclear Physics Nuclide Chart: Decay Mechanisms P = Parent D = Daughter

Nuclear Physics Nuclide Chart: Decay Mechanisms

Nuclear Physics Nuclide Chart: Decay Mechanisms

Nuclear Physics Nuclide Chart: Decay Mechanisms

Nuclide Chart for Elements up to Carbon

Is Be10 stable?

Is Be10 stable? What does it decay to?

Is Be10 stable? What does it decay to? How long does it take?

Is Be10 stable? What does it decay to? How long does it take? Is B7 stable?

Is Be10 stable? What does it decay to? How long does it take? Is B7 stable?

Is Be10 stable? What does it decay to? How long does it take? Is B7 stable?

Is Be10 stable? What does it decay to? How long does it take? Is B7 stable? Is C14 stable?

Is Be10 stable? What does it decay to? How long does it take? Is B7 stable? Is C14 stable?

Is Be10 stable? What does it decay to? How long does it take? Is B7 stable? Is C14 stable? N14

Nuclear Physics Nuclide Chart: Stability Regions & Decay Mechanisms

When Uranium-235 decays naturally, it decays to Lead-207 How is this possible?

When Uranium-235 decays naturally, it decays to Lead-207 How is this possible? It goes through a cascade of decays http://rais.ornl.gov/tools/chain.php

HOWEVER, if Uranium-235 is bombarded with a neutron, it can split during a FISSION EVENT to form two different isotopes:

Nuclear Physics Fission Reactions two primary fission reactions occurring in a light water reactor are:

There are no stable isotopes of Uranium  the nucleus is too big

There are no stable isotopes of Uranium  the nucleus is too big

Nuclear Physics Chain Reaction

Nuclear Physics Fissile vs. Fertile Isotopes fissile: isotopes that can sustain a chain reaction through fissions induced by thermal neutrons 235U: naturally-occurring 0.7 % of natural U 233U: not naturally-occurring 239Pu : not naturally-occurring fertile: isotope that can be converted to fissile isotope by neutron capture of a thermal neutron 232Th: naturally-occurring only thorium isotope 238U: naturally-occurring 99.3 % of natural U

Reactor Design Thermal Electricity Generation Reactor Types: Light Water Reactor: (Uses ordinary water) BWR: Boiling-Water Reactor PWR: Pressurized-Water Reactor Heavy Water Reactor (Uses water containing deuterium)