Chapter: Heredity Table of Contents Section 3: BiotechnologyBiotechnology Section 1: Genetics Section 2: Genetics Since MendelGenetics Since Mendel

Inheriting Traits Eye color, nose shape, and many other physical features are some of the traits that are inherited from parents. An organism is a collection of traits, all inherited from its parents. 1 1 Genetics

Inheriting Traits Heredity (huh REH duh tee) is the passing of traits from parent to offspring. 1 1 Genetics

What is genetics? Generally, genes on chromosomes control an organism’s form and function. The different forms of a trait that a gene may have are called alleles (uh LEELZ). When a pair of chromosomes separates during meiosis (mi OH sus), alleles for each trait also separate into different sex cells. 1 1 Genetics

What is genetics? Every sex cell has one allele for each trait. The study of how traits are inherited through the interactions of alleles is the science of genetics (juh NE tihks). 1 1 Genetics

Mendel — The Father of Genetics Gregor Mendel began experimenting with garden peas in Mendel made careful use of scientific methods, which resulted in the first recorded study of how traits pass from one generation to the next. 1 1 Genetics

Mendel —— The Father of Genetics Mendel was the first to trace one trait through several generations. He was also the first to use the mathematics of probability to explain heredity. 1 1 Genetics

Genetics in a Garden Each time Mendel studied a trait, he crossed two plants with different expressions of the trait and found that the new plants all looked like one of the two parents. He called these new plants hybrids (HI brudz) because they received different genetic information, or different alleles, for a trait from each parent. 1 1 Genetics

Genetics in a Garden An organism that always produces the same traits generation after generation is called a purebred. 1 1 Genetics

Genetics in a Garden Tall plants that always produce seeds that produce tall plants are purebred for the trait of tall height. 1 1 Genetics

Dominant and Recessive Factors In his experiments, Mendel used pollen from the flowers of purebred tall plants to pollinate by hand the flowers of purebred short plants. This process is called cross-pollination. 1 1 Genetics

Dominant and Recessive Factors He found that tall plants crossed with short plants produced seed that produced all tall plants. 1 1 Genetics

Dominant and Recessive Factors Mendel called the tall form the dominant (DAH muh nunt) factor because it dominated, or covered up, the short form. 1 1 Genetics He called the form that seemed to disappear the recessive (rih SE sihv) factor. Click image to view movie.

Using Probability to Make Predictions Probability is a branch of mathematics that helps you predict the chance that something will happen. 1 1 Genetics

Using Probability to Make Predictions Mendel also dealt with probabilities. 1 1 Genetics One of the things that made his predictions accurate was that he worked with large numbers of plants. He studied almost 30,000 pea plants over a period of eight years. By doing so, Mendel increased his chances of seeing a repeatable pattern.

Punnett Squares How could you predict what the offspring would look like without making the cross? 1 1 Genetics A handy tool used to predict results in Mendelian genetics is the Punnett (PUH nut) square. Click image to view movie.

Punnett Squares In a Punnett square, letters represent dominant and recessive alleles. 1 1 Genetics

Punnett Squares 1 1 Genetics An uppercase letter stands for a dominant allele. A lowercase letter stands for a recessive allele.

Punnett Squares They show the genotype (JEE nuh tipe), or genetic makeup, of an organism. 1 1 Genetics The way an organism looks and behaves as a result of its genotype is its phenotype (FEE nuh tipe).

Alleles Determine Traits Most cells in your body have two alleles for every trait. 1 1 Genetics These alleles are located on chromosomes within the nucleus of cells.

Alleles Determine Traits An organism with two alleles that are the same is called homozygous (hoh muh ZI gus). 1 1 Genetics An organism that has two different alleles for a trait is called heterozygous (he tuh roh ZI gus).

Making a Punnett Square 1 1 Genetics

1 1 Section Check Question 1 How did Gregor Mendel use his knowledge of mathematics in his study of heredity in pea plants?

1 1 Answer Mendel was the first person to use the mathematics of probability to explain heredity. Probability is the branch of mathematics that helps you predict the chance that something will happen. Section Check

1 1 Question 2 According to this diagram, if meiosis proceeds correctly, how many alleles of a particular gene can a female pass on to her offspring? Section Check

1 1 Answer Although she has two alleles of each gene, a mother can pass only one allele to her offspring. Meiosis separates alleles so that eggs have only one allele for each gene. The new individual then gets one allele from the mother and the other from the father. Section Check

1 1 Question 3 Mendel crossed pea plants that were pure-bred for yellow seeds with plants that were pure- bred for green seeds. All the offspring of this cross had yellow seeds. Based on these results, which form of color was recessive and which was dominant? Section Check

1 1 Answer Green seed color was recessive and yellow seed color was dominant. Mendel called the form that seemed to disappear (green in this case) recessive and the form that covered up (yellow in this case) dominant. Section Check

Incomplete Dominance When the offspring of two homozygous parents show an intermediate phenotype, this inheritance is called incomplete dominance. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel Examples of incomplete dominance include the flower color of some plant breeds and the coat color of some horse breeds.

Multiple Alleles Many traits are controlled by more than two alleles. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel A trait that is controlled by more than two alleles is said to be controlled by multiple alleles.

Multiple Alleles Traits controlled by multiple alleles produce more than three phenotypes of that trait. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel Blood type in humans is an example of multiple alleles that produce only four phenotypes. The alleles for blood types are called A, B, and O.

Multiple Alleles When a person inherits one A allele and one B allele for blood type, both are expressed  phenotype AB. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel A person with phenotype A blood has the genetic makeup, or genotype  AA or AO.

Multiple Alleles Someone with phenotype B blood has the genotype BB or BO. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel Finally, a person with phenotype O blood has the genotype OO.

Polygenic Inheritance Polygenic (pah lih JEH nihk) inheritance occurs when a group of gene pairs acts together to produce a trait. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel The effects of many alleles produces a wide variety of phenotypes. Click image to view movie.

Polygenic Inheritance Your height and the color of your eyes and skin are just some of the many human traits controlled by polygenic inheritance. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel It is estimated that three to six gene pairs control your skin color. The environment also plays an important role in the expression of traits controlled by polygenic inheritance.

Impact of the Environment Your environment plays a role in how some of your genes are expressed or whether they are expressed at all. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel Environmental influences can be internal or external.

Impact of the Environment Although genes determine many of your traits, you might be able to influence their expression by the decisions you make. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel For instance, if some people at risk for skin cancer limit their exposure to the Sun and take care of their skin, they might never develop cancer.

Human Genes and Mutations Occasionally errors occur in the DNA when it is copied inside of a cell. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel Such changes and errors are called mutations. Not all mutations are harmful. They might be helpful or have no effect on an organism.

Chromosome Disorders Every organism has a specific number of chromosomes. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel However, mistakes in the process of meiosis can result in a new organism with more or fewer chromosomes than normal.

Chromosome Disorders If three copies of chromosome 21 are produced in the fertilized human egg, Down’s syndrome results. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel Individuals with Down’s syndrome can be short, exhibit learning disabilities, and have heart problems.

Recessive Genetic Disorders Many human genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis, are caused by recessive genes. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel Some recessive genes are the result of a mutation within the gene. Many of these alleles are rare.

Recessive Genetic Disorders Such genetic disorders occur when both parents have a recessive allele responsible for this disorder. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel Because the parents are heterozygous, they don’t show any symptoms.

Recessive Genetic Disorders If each parent passes the recessive allele to the child, the child inherits both recessive alleles and will have a recessive genetic disorder. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel

Recessive Genetic Disorders Cystic fibrosis is the most common genetic disorder that can lead to death among Caucasian Americans. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel In most people, a thin fluid is produced that lubricates the lungs and intestinal tract. People with cystic fibrosis produce thick mucus instead of this thin fluid.

Recessive Genetic Disorders The thick mucus builds up in the lungs and makes it hard to breathe. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel This buildup often results in repeated bacterial respiratory infections.

Sex Determination Each egg produced by a female normally contains one X chromosome. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel Males produce sperm that normally have either an X or a Y chromosome.

Sex Determination When a sperm with an X chromosome fertilizes an egg, the offspring is a female, XX. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel A male offspring, XY is the result of a Y- containing sperm fertilizing an egg.

Sex-Linked Disorders An allele inherited on a sex chromosome is called a sex-linked gene. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel Color blindness is a sex-linked disorder in which people cannot distinguish between certain colors, particularly red and green.

Sex-Linked Disorders This trait is a recessive allele on the X chromosome. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel Because males have only one X chromosome, a male with this allele on his X chromosome is color-blind. A color-blind female occurs only when both of her X chromosomes have the allele for this trait.

Pedigrees Trace Traits A pedigree is a visual tool for following a trait through generations of a family. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel Males are represented by squares and females by circles.

Pedigrees Trace Traits A completely filled circle or square shows that the trait is seen in that person. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel Half-colored circles or squares indicate carriers. People represented by empty circles or squares do not have the trait and are not carriers.

Using Pedigrees A pedigree is a useful tool for a geneticist. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel When geneticists understand how a trait is inherited, they can predict the probability that a baby will be born with a specific trait.

Using Pedigrees Pedigrees also are important in breeding animals or plants. 2 2 Genetics Since Mendel These organisms are bred to increase their yield and nutritional content.

2 2 Section Check Question 1 Why is color blindness a sex-linked trait?

2 2 Answer This trait is sex-linked because the alleles for this trait are carried on the X-chromosome, one of the sex chromosomes. Color-blindness is caused by a recessive allele and because males get only one X-chromosome, they are more likely to be color-blind than females. Section Check

2 2 Question 2 In Himalayan rabbits, dark-colored fur is only found on cooler parts of the rabbits’ bodies. This is an example of _______. Section Check A. how sex-linked conditions change coat color B. the risk of cancer in rabbits with light fur C. the impact of internal environment on gene expression D. what hybrid rabbits look like

2 2 Answer The correct answer is C. The alleles for dark fur color are controlled by the internal temperature of the rabbits. These alleles are expressed only at lower temperatures. Section Check

2 2 Question 3 If an individual has three copies of chromosome 21, what condition will result? Section Check A. color blindness B. cystic fibrosis C. Down’s syndrome D. Hemophilia

2 2 Answer The correct answer is C. Down’s syndrome occurs when there are three copies of chromosome 21 instead of the usual two. Section Check

Genetic Engineering Through genetic engineering, scientists are experimenting with biological and chemical methods to change the arrangement of DNA that makes up a gene. 3 3 Biotechnology Genetic engineering already is used to help produce large volumes of medicine.

Recombinant DNA Recombinant DNA is made by inserting a useful segment of DNA from one organism into a bacterium. 3 3 This method is used to produce human insulin, human growth hormone, and other chemicals by bacteria. Biotechnology

Gene Therapy In gene therapy, a normal allele is placed in a virus. 3 3 The virus then delivers the normal allele when it infects its target cell. The normal allele replaces the defective one. Biotechnology

Gene Therapy Scientists are conducting experiments that use this method to test ways of controlling cystic fibrosis and some kinds of cancer. 3 3 Gene therapy might be a method of curing several other genetic disorders in the future. Biotechnology

Genetically Engineered Plants Selecting plants with the most desired traits to breed for the next generation is called selective breeding. 3 3 Recent advances in genetics have not replaced selective breeding. Biotechnology

Genetically Engineered Plants Genetic engineering can produce improvements in crop plants, such as corn, wheat, and rice. 3 3 One type of genetic engineering involves finding the genes that produce desired traits in one plant and then inserting those genes into a different plant. Biotechnology

3 3 Section Check Question 1 What is it called when scientists use biological and chemical methods to change the arrangement of DNA in a gene?

3 3 Section Check Answer This is called genetic engineering. This process has been used to make large volumes of medicines and research is being conducted to find many other ways to use these techniques.

3 3 Section Check Question 2 What does this diagram illustrate?

3 3 Section Check A. Bacteria cells can produce human insulin. B. Bacteria genes are put in human cells.

3 3 Section Check C. People with diabetes are given the gene for insulin. D. The insulin gene is inserted in people with diabetes.

3 3 Section Check The correct answer is A. Genetic engineering can be used to insert the human gene for insulin into bacterial cells. The bacterial cells then produce human insulin. This insulin can be used to treat people who have diabetes. Answer

3 3 Section Check Using genetic engineering to replace defective alleles in people with genetic diseases is called _______. Question 3 A. gene therapy B. Mendelian genetics C. pedigree analysis D. recombinant DNA

3 3 Section Check The correct answer is A. Often; a virus is used to deliver the normal allele to the patient. Scientists have been conducting experiments to cure many different genetic diseases, including cystic fibrosis, in this way. Answer

Review 1 of 2 Pedigree: tool for tracing a trait through a family. Heterozygous: organisms with two different alleles for a trait. Genotype: genetic makeup of an organism. Phenotype: physical appearance of an organism. Probability: helps determine the chance that something will occur.

Review 2 of 2 Incomplete dominance: when an intermediate form is expressed in offspring. Multiple alleles: when more than two alleles control a trait. Polygenic inheritance: when a group of gene pairs act together. Be able to construct Punnett squares and interpret the results. XX chromosome pair = female, XY chromosome pair = male