The Earth is almost a sphere. These are its main layers, starting with the outermost: crust - relatively thin and rocky mantle - has the properties of a solid, but can flow very slowly outer core - made from liquid nickel and iron inner core - made from solid nickel and iron.

The lithosphere is broken into large pieces called tectonic plates. These are less dense than the mantle underneath. Tectonic plates move very slowly relative to one another, around 2.5 cm per year. Volcanic eruptions Some produce runny lava, while others produce thick lava that escapes violently. volcanic soil is very fertile. It contains minerals needed by plants for healthy growth. Igneous rocks made when molten rock cools down and solidifies. The slower the molten rock cools, the larger the crystals become.

Construction materials What is concrete made from? What is cement made from?

The materials used in the construction industry: aluminium and iron - metals obtained from ores brick - made from clay glass - made from sand cement and concrete - made using limestone granite, limestone and marble Limestone & marble are both forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ). deposits are in areas of natural beauty, and this creates environmental problems. Granite Marble Limestone Hardness

Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate: calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide (CaCO3 CaO + CO2) Other metal carbonates decompose in the same way. E.g copper(II) carbonate copper(II) oxide + carbon dioxide CuCO3 CuO + CO2 colour change, from green copper(II) carbonate to black copper(II) oxide, is easy to see.

Cement and concrete cement is made by heating powdered limestone with clay concrete is made by mixing cement with sand, water and aggregate (crushed rock). Chemical reactions happen in the mixtures and eventually they set hard. Reinforced concrete Concrete is often reinforced with steel. A steel support is made by joining steel bars or cables together and this is then usually surrounded by a mould. Concrete is poured into the mould, where it fills the gaps in the steel support and sets hard. Reinforced concrete is an example of a composite material.

tals_alloysrev1.shtml Extraction and purification of copper Copper is less reactive than carbon, so it can be extracted from its ores by heating it with carbon. For example, copper is formed if copper oxide is heated strongly with charcoal, which is mostly carbon: copper(II) oxide + carbon → copper + carbon dioxide 2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO 2 Removing O 2 from a substance is called reduction. The copper oxide is reduced to copper. Copper is purified by electrolysis. Electricity is passed through solutions containing copper compounds, such as copper(II) sulphate. Pure copper forms on the negative electrode. The animation shows how this works:

An alloy is a mixture of two elements, one of which is a metal. Contain atoms of different sizes, which distorts the regular arrangements of atoms. This makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over each other, so alloys are harder than the pure metal they contain.

Iron and steel rust when they come into contact with water and oxygen. Both are needed for rusting to occur. Rusting is an oxidation reaction. The iron reacts with water and oxygen to form hydrated iron(III) oxide, iron + water + oxygen → hydrated iron(III) oxide Salt and acid rain speed up rusting Aluminium does not rust or corrode in moist conditions. Its surface is protected by a natural layer of aluminium oxide. This prevents the metal below from coming into contact with air and oxygen.

Car bodies Most iron is converted into steel (an alloy) before being used. Compared to iron, steel is: harder and stronger less likely to rust. Iron versus aluminium Iron and aluminium are used to build cars. They are both malleable - they can be bent or pressed into shape. Alluminium is more expensive…

Ammonia Ammonia NH3 is an important raw material in the manufacture of fertilisers. Some ammonia is converted into nitric acid which itself is used in the manufacture of fertilisers and explosives. Ammonia is also a useful ingredient in some cleaning fluids. Ammonia is a vital route by which nitrogen in the air can be made available to plants to enable them to build protein molecules. Plants cannot use nitrogen directly from the air. They need nitrogen compounds, dissolved in water, which they absorb through their roots. Without synthetic, ammonia-based fertilisers, the world would be unable to grow enough food to feed its population.

The Haber process Hydrogen and nitrogen: H is obtained by reacting gas with steam N is obtained from the air. nitrogen and hydrogen react together under these conditions: a high temperature - about 450ºC a high pressure an iron catalyst. unreacted N and H are recycled. The reaction is reversible. nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia N2 + 3H2 2NH3

Manufacturing costs Factors that increase cost include: high pressures (they increase the cost of the equipment) high temperatures (they increase the energy costs). Factors that decrease cost: catalysts (increase the rate of reaction) recycling unreacted starting materials automating equipment (fewer people employed, cuts wage bill). Percentage yield: The mass of product that is actually made, compared to the total possible mass of product. For any given temperature the yield of ammonia increases as the pressure increases. For any given pressure, the yield goes down as the temperature increases.

Bases are substances that can react with acids and neutralise them. Alkalis are bases that are soluble in water. The strength of the acidity or alkalinity is expressed by the pH scale. PH less than 7 are acidic PH of 7 are neutral PH greater than 7 are alkaline. If universal indicator is added to a solution it changes to a colour that shows the pH of the solution.

Bases and acids Bases react with acids to make them neutral. Metal oxides and Metal hydroxides react with acids to form neutral products. Examples of bases include: copper(II) oxide zinc hydroxide. An alkali is a soluble base, a base that can dissolve in water. (E.g copper(II) oxide is a base because it can neutralise acids but, because it does not dissolve in water, it is not an alkali) Examples of alkalis include: sodium hydroxide potassium hydroxide. All alkalis are bases.

Neutralisation: A neutralisation involving an acid and a base (or alkali) always produces salt and water. acid + base → salt + water All acids contain hydrogen ions, H+. The greater the concentration of these H+ ions, the lower the pH. The first part of the salt is ‘ammonium’ if the base used is ammonia. Otherwise, it is the name of the metal in the base. The second part of the name comes from the acid used: chloride, if hydrochloric acid is used nitrate, if nitric acid is used sulfate, if sulfuric acid is used phosphate, if phosphoric acid is used.

Fertilisers Crops grow faster and bigger so crop yields are increased. Water-soluble minerals so they can be absorbed through the roots Provide plants with essential chemical elements needed for growth Ammonia is used in fertilisers for crops

Making fertilisers made by the reaction of an acid and an alkali.The table shows some examples. Making a fertiliser in the lab a measuring cylinder to measure a particular volume of an alkali solution a burette to add acid a little at a time until the alkali has been neutralised a filter funnel to remove solid crystals of fertiliser after evaporating some of the water from the neutral fertiliser solution.

Common salt is sodium chloride, NaCl. can be made in a laboratory by the reaction of sodium with chlorineor found naturally in sea water or in underground deposits. Mining mined as rock salt which is used to treat icy roads in the winter. It lowers the melting point of the ice mined by solution mining. Water pumped underground and into the salt deposit. Salt dissolves in the water, forming a concentrated salt solution, pumped up to the surface. safer than sending miners underground. can lead to subsidence if insufficient salt is left underground after mining. Uses of sodium chloride food industry as a preservative and flavour enhancer.. manufacture of hydrogen, chlorine and sodium hydroxide by electrolysis.

During electrolysis: chlorine gas forms at the anode (positive electrode) hydrogen gas forms at the cathode (negative electrode) a solution of sodium hydroxide forms. These products are reactive, so it is important to use inert (unreactive) materials for the electrodes.

Hydrogen Hydrogen is used in the manufacture of ammonia and margarine (it is used to harden vegetable oils). Chlorine kill bacteria in drinking water and swimming pool water make solvents make plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) make household bleach. Sodium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide is used to make soap and household bleach. Bleach Household bleach, sodium chlorate, is made when sodium hydroxide and chlorine react together: sodium hydroxide + chlorine → sodium chloride + water + sodium chlorate 2NaOH + Cl 2 → NaCl + H 2 O + NaClO Used to clean and disinfect toilets, drains & kitchen surfaces.