A.) Introduction : 1.) Coulometry: electrochemical method based on the quantitative oxidation or reduction of analyte - measure amount of analyte by measuring amount of current and time required to complete reaction < charge = current (i) x time in coulombs - electrolytic method  external power added to system 2.) Example: - Coulometric Titration of Cl - - use Ag electrode to produce Ag + Ag (s) ↔ Ag + + e - Ag + + Cl - ↔ AgCl (ppt.) - measure Ag + in solution by 2 nd electrode - only get complete circuit when Ag + exists in solution - only occurs after all Cl - is consumed - by measuring amount of current and time required to complete reaction can determine amount of Cl- Coulometric Methods

Typical coulometric titration cell. e.g. At the generator electrode (anode) Ag (s) Ag + + e - (oxidation of silver to silver ion) At the cathode: Possible reaction 2H + + 2e - H 2 (g) (hydrogen evolution) Therefore, need sintered glass to separate the species generated in the other electrode (e.g. cathode, hydrogen gas) to prevent reactions with the “titration species” such as Ag +. cathode anode

3.) Based on Measurement of Amount of Electricity (or charge, in coulombs) Required to Convert Analyte to Different Oxidation State - Q = It for constant current with time where: Q = charge required (coulombs = amp. sec) I = current (amp.) t = time of current (sec) for variable current with time: Q = I Idt Relate charge (coulombs, C) to moles of e - passing electrode by Faraday constant Faraday (F) = 96,485 Coulombs (C)/mole e - F = x e - / mole e - x x C/ e - = 96,485 Coulombs/mole e - If know moles of e- produced and stoichiometry of ½ cell reaction: Ag (s) ↔ Ag + + e - (1:1 Ag + /e - ) gives moles of analyte generated, consumed, etc. 0 t

Example: Constant current of A (amps.) used to deposit Cu at the cathode and O 2 at anode of an electrolytic cell for 15.2 minutes. What quantity in grams is formed for each product? ½ cell reactions: Cu e - Cu (s)(cathode) 2H 2 O 4e - + O 2 + 4H+(anode) To solve: Q = i. t Q = (0.800 A)(15.2 min) (60 sec/min) Q = C (amp. sec) amount Cu produced: =(729.6 C)(1 mole e - /96,485 C)(1 mole Cu/2 mole e - )(63.5g Cu/mole Cu) = g Cu amount of O 2 produced: =(729.6 C)(1 mole e-/96,485 C)(1 mole O 2 /4 mole e-)(32.0g O 2 /mole O 2 ) = g O 2

4.) Two Types of Coulometric Methods a) amperostatic (coulmetric titration) - most common of two b) potentiostatic Fundamental requirement for both methods is 100% current efficiency - all e - go to participate in the desired electrochemical process - If not, then takes more current  over-estimate amount of analyte B) Amperostatic Methods (Coulometric Titrations) 1.) Basics: titration of analyte in solution by using coulometry at constant current to generate a known quantity of titrant electrochemically - potential set by contents of cell - Example: Ag (s) ↔ Ag + + e - for precipitation titration of Cl - - To detect endpoint, use 2 nd electrode to detect buildup of titrant after endpoint.

2.) Applications a) Can be used for Acid-Base Titrations - Acid titration 2H 2 O + 2e - ↔ 2OH - + H 2 titrant generation reaction - Base titration H 2 O ↔ 2H + + ½ O 2 + 2e - titrant generation reaction b.) Can be used for Complexation Titrations (EDTA) HgNH 3 Y 2- + NH e- ↔ Hg + 2NH 3 +HY 3- HY 3- ↔ H + + Y 4- c.) Can be used for Redox Titrations Ce 3+ ↔ Ce 4+ + e - Ce 4+ + Fe 2+ ↔ Ce 3+ + Fe 3+

3.) Comparison of Coulometric and Volumetric Titration a) Both Have Observable Endpoint - Current (e - generation) < serves same function as a standard titrant solution - Time < serves same function as volume delivered - amount of analyte determined by combining capacity - reactions must be rapid, essentially complete and free of side reactions b.) Advantages of Coulometry - Both time and current easy to measure to a high accuracy - Don’t have to worry about titrant stability - easier and more accurate for small quantities of reagent < small volumes of dilute solutions  problem with volumetric - used for precipitation, complex formation oxidation/reduction or neutralization reactions - readily automated c) Sources of Error - variation of current during electrolysis - departure from 100% current efficiency - error in measurement of current - error in measurement of time - titration error (difference in equivalence point and end point)

4.) Change in Potential During Amperostatic Methods a) In constant current system, potential of cell will vary with time as analyte is consumed. - Cell “seeks out” electrochemical reactions capable of carrying the supplied current Cu e - ↔ Cu (s) initial reaction - Nernst Equation E cathode = E o Cu 2+ /Cu – /2 log (1/a Cu 2+ ) Note: E cathode depends on a Cu 2+. As a Cu 2+ decreases  (deposited by reaction) E cathode decreases.

- When all Cu 2+ is consumed, current is carried by another electrochemical reaction < generation of H 2 (g) if reduction 2H + + 2e - ↔ H 2 (g) < breakdown of water if oxidation 2H 2 O ↔ H 2 O 2 + 2H + + 2e - H 2 O 2 ↔ O 2 + 2H + + 2e - - Not a problem as long as : (1) other species don’t co-deposit (2) there isn’t a large excess of species being used in titrant generation vs. titrated analyte e.g., Ag (s) vs. Cl - in solution (in AgCl precipitation experiment) M e - M(s) (co-deposition)

C) Potentiostatic Coulometry 1.) Basics: -detection of analyte in solution by using Coulometry at fixed potential to quantitatively convert analyte to a given form < current controlled by contents of cell. 2.) Instrumentation requirements: - electrochemical/electrolysis cell - a potentiostat (apply the required potential/voltage to the system) - an integrator (analog or digital) for determination of the charged consumed Electrochemical cell Equivalent circuit Practical Circuit of a Potentiostat and an Electrochemical/Electrolysis

2) Advantages: - more specific than amperostatic coulometry < avoids redox of species that may interfere with constant current coulometry - can be used for over 55 elements without major interference 3) Disadvantages - does take longer than amperostatic titration < current (i) decreases with time < conversion becomes slower as less analyte around to oxidize or reduce I t = I o e -kt k = 25.8 DA/V  where: I t = current at time t (A) I 0 = initial current (A) t = time (sec) D = diffusion coefficient (cm 2 /s) A = electrode surface area (cm 2 ) V = volume of solution (cm 3 )  = thickness of the surface layer where concentration gradient exists (cm) *** typical values of D are in the range of cm 2 /s *** typical values of d is 2 x cm

4) Other Applications of constant potential coulometry -electroplating, apply the correct potential, the “metal of interest” will be deposited. e.g. gold plated onto silver (vermeil) as jewelry e.g. zinc plated onto steel for anti-corrosion (zinc as “sacrificial cathodic coating”) The term "vermeil" refers to a silver item, containing no less than 92.5% silver, that has been plated with a gold or gold alloy that is no less than 10 karat, to a thickness of not less than 2.5 microns. Example (using the two equations): Deposition of Copper: Cu e - Cu (s) After 30 min, current decreases from the initial 1.5 A to 0.08A By this time, approx. 96% of the copper has been deposited.