I. I.Microevolution D. D.Genetic Drift 1. 1.Bottleneck effect Ex: Elevated frequency of Tay-Sachs Disease in Ashkenazi Jews Ex: Genetic homogeneity in populations of African cheetahs 2. 2.Founder effect Allele frequencies in small populations may reflect genotypes of founding individuals Common in isolated populations Ex: Finns descended from small group of people ~4000 years ago; genetically distinct from other Europeans

I. I.Microevolution E. E.Gene Flow Movement of fertile individuals or gametes among populations Tends to Increase diversity within populations Decrease diversity among populations Elevated gene flow can amalgamate separate populations into a single population

Fig % of central & 13% of eastern first-time-breeding females immigrated from mainland Mainland females survive and reproduce poorly Gene flow from mainland reduces fitness of central vs. eastern females

II. II.Genetic Variation Provides raw material for natural selection Homogeneous population – little opportunity for differential fitness Sources 1) 1)Mutation 2) 2)Crossing over 3) 3)Independent assortment (Meiosis) 4) 4)Random fertilization

II. II.Genetic Variation A. A.Within Populations Variation in Discrete characters Ex: Color in some flowers (pink or white) Quantitative characters Ex: Skin color in humans 1. 1.Polymorphism Two or more alleles at a single locus Extensive in most populations Phenotypic – Different morphs (body forms) Genotypic – May not produce discrete phenotypes Measurement Drosophila – 14% heterozygosity, ~1% nucleotide variability Homo sapiens – ~0.1% nucleotide variability

II. II.Genetic Variation B. B.Between Populations 1. 1.Geographic Variation Differences among genetically distinct populations within a species Differences may be due to random variation Differences may occur over a geographic range Cline – Graded variation in phenotype and genotype over a geographic range Common among species with continuous ranges over large areas Higher latitudes: Smaller individuals (plants) Higher latitudes: Larger individuals (animals) Why?

II. II.Genetic Variation C. C.Natural Selection Can alter frequency distribution of heritable traits 1. 1.Directional selection Environmental change over time favors phenotypes at one extreme Possible only if population contains multiple alleles, at least one of which is favored Ex: Black bears in Europe larger during glacial periods, smaller during interglacials 2. 2.Disruptive selection Favors extremes at expense of mean Also called diversifying selection Ex: During a drought, Galápagos finches with long beaks able to open cactus fruits, birds with wide beaks stripped off tree bark to expose insects, intermediate beaks less useful 3. 3.Stabilizing selection Favors mean at expense of extremes Reduces variation Ex: Birth weight in humans

Fig

II. II.Genetic Variation C. C.Natural Selection Can alter frequency distribution of heritable traits 1. 1.Directional selection Environmental change over time favors phenotypes at one extreme Possible only if population contains multiple alleles, at least one of which is favored Ex: Black bears in Europe larger during glacial periods, smaller during interglacials 2. 2.Disruptive selection Favors extremes at expense of mean Also called diversifying selection Ex: During a drought, Galápagos finches with long beaks able to open cactus fruits, birds with wide beaks stripped off tree bark to expose insects, intermediate beaks less useful 3. 3.Stabilizing selection Favors mean at expense of extremes Reduces variation Ex: Birth weight in humans

Fig

II. II.Genetic Variation C. C.Natural Selection Can alter frequency distribution of heritable traits 1. 1.Directional selection Environmental change over time favors phenotypes at one extreme Possible only if population contains multiple alleles, at least one of which is favored Ex: Black bears in Europe larger during glacial periods, smaller during interglacials 2. 2.Disruptive selection Favors extremes at expense of mean Also called diversifying selection Ex: During a drought, Galápagos finches with long beaks able to open cactus fruits, birds with wide beaks stripped off tree bark to expose insects, intermediate beaks less useful 3. 3.Stabilizing selection Favors mean at expense of extremes Reduces variation Ex: Birth weight in humans

Fig

Stabilizing Selection

Fig

II. II.Genetic Variation D. D.Preservation of Variation Why aren’t we all homozygous for the most favorable alleles? Balancing selection occurs when natural selection maintains two or more phenotypes in a population = balanced polymorphism 1. 1.Heterozygote advantage Heterozygotes more fit than homozygotes Ex: Sickle-cell disease 2. 2.Frequency-dependent selection Phenotypic fitness depends on rarity in population Ex: Non-selective predation

Fig

II. II.Genetic Variation D. D.Preservation of Variation Why aren’t we all homozygous for the most favorable alleles? Balancing selection occurs when natural selection maintains two or more phenotypes in a population = balanced polymorphism 1. 1.Heterozygote advantage Heterozygotes more fit than homozygotes Ex: Sickle-cell disease 2. 2.Frequency-dependent selection Phenotypic fitness depends on rarity in population Ex: Non-selective predation

III. III.Development of New Species A. A.Anagenesis (Phyletic Evolution) Accumulated changes transform one species into another Same number of species at beginning and end B. B.Cladogenesis (Branching Evolution) Formation of new species, with parental species continuing to exist (potentially altered) Increased number of species

III. III.Development of New Species Biological Species Concept Developed by Ernst Mayr “Population or group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature to produce viable, fertile offspring, but who cannot produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other species” Why don’t individuals from different species interbreed?

IV. IV.Reproductive Isolation A. A.Prezygotic barriers Prevent fertilization B. B.Postzygotic barriers Act after fertilization has occurred

Fig Time of Day Time of Year Courtship Sounds/Songs Flowers Snails Plants Broadcast Spawners Bullfrog x Leopard Frog Horse (2n=64) x Donkey (2n=62)  Mule (2n=63)

IV. IV.Reproductive Isolation C. C.Limitations of Biological Species Concept Mayr’s definition emphasizes reproductive isolation; may not work in all situations Ex: Classifying fossil organisms Ex: Species that reproduce asexually [prokaryotes, some protists, fungi, plants (e.g. bananas), animals (e.g. fishes, lizards)] Ex: Multiple species are inter-fertile but remain distinct (e.g. orchids)