Basic concept of clinical study

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Presentation transcript:

Basic concept of clinical study Vuthiphan Vongmongkol Weranuch Wongwatanakul

Basic science of public health Epidemiology Basic science of public health “The study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified population and the application of this study to control of health problems” Last JM:A dictionary of Epidemiology,ed 2. New York, Oxford University Press,1988 ระบาดวิทยามีความเป็นวิทยาศาสตร์ ได้รับการยกให้เป็น “ศาสตร์พื้นฐาน(basic science)” ของการสาธารณสุข มีระเบียบวิธีและข้อปฏิบัติที่รองรับความเป็นเหตุเป็นผล ระบาดวิทยาคือการศึกษาเกี่ยวกับการกระจายและสาเหตุของการเกิดโรคใน ประชากร โดยมีจุดหมายเพื่อใช้ประโยชน์ในการควบคุมป้องกันโรค Distribution (Prevalence, Incidence) Determinants (Risk factors, Causes of diseases) *Ram Ragsin, MD MPH DrPH Department of Military & Community Medicine Phramongkutklao College of Medicine

Research question in Epidemiology Size of the problems Prevalence of DM in the population How many people don’t have adequate health care? Association of the problems Did the DM in this population related to education level? Did those Whose do not have adequate health care relate to geographic region of residences? การวัดขนาดของปัญหา หรือขนาดของโรค การวัดความสัมพันธ์ระหว่าง “ปัจจัยที่ศึกษา” และ “โรค” ความชุกของโรคเบาหวานในประชากร มีจำนวนประชากรกี่คนที่ไม่ได้รับการบริการทางแพทย์ที่เหมาะสม การเกิดโรคเบาหวานสัมพันธ์กับระดับการศึกษาหรือไม่? ผู้ที่ไม่ได้รับบริการทางการแพทย์ที่เหมาะสมมีความสัมพันธ์กับ ท้องถิ่นที่อาศัยอยู่? *Ram Ragsin, MD MPH DrPH Department of Military & Community Medicine Phramongkutklao College of Medicine

Measurements in Epidemiology Size of the problems (Measuring the occurrence) Prevalence Incidence Association of the Problems (Measuring the association) Prevalence Rate Ratio ===> Cross-Sectional Study Odds Ratio ===> Case-Control study Relative Risk ===> Cohort study *Ram Ragsin, MD MPH DrPH Department of Military & Community Medicine Phramongkutklao College of Medicine

Rate The central tool of Epidemiology is the comparison of RATES อัตรา คือ การเปรียบเทียบจำนวนความถี่ของโรคหรือลักษณะบางอย่างต่อหน่วยประชากรที่ทำการสังเกตุ - Mortality Rate - Prevalence - Incidence

Prevalence “The number of existing case of disease at a particular point in time.” ความชุก คือจำนวนของผู้ป่วยต่อหน่วยประชากรที่เฝ้าสังเกตในขณะเวลาใดเวลาหนึ่ง

There are two ways of measuring Incidence (1) There are two ways of measuring Cumulative incidence อุบัติการณ์ จำนวนผู้ป่วยใหม่ที่เกิดขึ้นต่อหน่วยประชาการที่เฝ้าสังเกตในช่วงระยะเวลาที่กำหนด

Measuring the incidence (2) 2) Incidence density or Incidence rate Adding “Time Dimension” into the denominator “Person-time” person-month, person-year 1 person-year = Following 1 person for 1 year period 10 person-year = Following 1 person for 10 year period or Following 10 persons for 1 year period โดย 1 Person-time จะเท่ากับการสังเกต คน 1 คน นานเท่าห้วงเวลานั้น เช่น 10 Person-year ก็คือการสังเกตคนหนึ่งคนไปเป็นเวลา 10 ปี ซึ่งก็เท่ากับการสังเกตคน 10 คนในเวลา 1 ปีนั่นเอง การระบุอุบัติการแบบนี้จะละเอียดตรงกับความเป็นจริงที่เกิดมากขึ้นเพราะ การศึกษาให้ได้มาซึ่งอุบัติการแบบ ID นั้นไม่จำเป็นที่จะต้องมีสมมติฐานที่ว่าคนทุกคนได้รับการติดตามไปพร้อมๆ กันตั้งแต่ต้นจนจบ เหมือน CI หากแต่อนุญาตให้มีการหยุดการติดตามหรือออกจากการศึกษาไปได้ เพราะการคำนวณตัวหาร หรือ จำนวน Person-time ที่ได้มาจะคำนวณตามเวลาที่คนแต่ละคนได้รับการติดตาม *Ram Ragsin, MD MPH DrPH Department of Military & Community Medicine Phramongkutklao College of Medicine

Measuring the incidence (3) 2) Incidence density or Incidence rate If 100 subjects are followed for 1 year and 20 develop disease, the incidence density is 20 cases/ 100 person-years of observation = 20/100 person-years

ความสัมพันธ์ระหว่างการสูบบุหรี่กับอุบัติการการเกิดอัมพาต ของประชากร 118,539 คนในเวลา 8 ปี Smoking No. of stroke Person-years Incidence rate of observation /100,000 person-years Never 70 395,594 17.7 Ex-smoker 65 232,712 27.9 Smoker 139 280,141 49.6 Total 274 908,477 30.2 Cumulative incidence = 274 / 118,539 = 2.31 / 1,000

Classification of Clinical Study Design Observation (natural exposure) Experiment (exposure given by researcher) Cross-sectional Case control Cohort Randomized controlled trials

Ability to prove causation Type of study Ability to “prove” causation Randomized controlled trials Cohort studies Case control studies Cross-sectional studies Strong Moderate Weak

Cohort Study !!!! We are dealing with “INCIDENCE” *Ram Ragsin, MD MPH DrPH Department of Military & Community Medicine Phramongkutklao College of Medicine

Cohort Study (1) The most powerful observational study for identifying an association between risk factors and a disease The most time consuming The most expensive *Ram Ragsin, MD MPH DrPH Department of Military & Community Medicine Phramongkutklao College of Medicine

Cohort Study (2) Start with a group of people without the disease Then divide people based on the basis of the exposure to a suspected risk factor Follow the “whole group” for a period of time Then assess the disease occurrence outcome *Ram Ragsin, MD MPH DrPH Department of Military & Community Medicine Phramongkutklao College of Medicine

Lung Cancer Cigarette Cause Effect Disease Death Intermediate outcomes - CD4+count - Increased Creatinine Cigarette Exposure Risk factor Covariate - Age - Gender - Income *Ram Ragsin, MD MPH DrPH Department of Military & Community Medicine Phramongkutklao College of Medicine

Design of a cohort study Exposed Not Exposed People without The disease Population disease no disease Time Direction of inquiry

“ The probability of disease incidence” Risk “ The probability of disease incidence” Risk = number of cases of disease number of people at risk

Relative Risk A B C D A+B C+D Smoke Not Smoke Relative Risk = A / A+B CA Lung No CA Relative Risk = A / A+B C / C+D

Interpretation of Relative Risk (RR) 45 445 1 499 500 Smoke Not Smoke CA Lung No CA Incidence of smoker who develop Lung Cancer = 45/500 Incidence of Non-smoker who develop Lung Cancer = 1/500 Relative Risk of smoking for Lung Cancer = 45/500 = 45 1/500 “Those who smoked were 45 times more likely to develop lung cancer than those who did not smoke” *Ram Ragsin, MD MPH DrPH Department of Military & Community Medicine Phramongkutklao College of Medicine

Design of case-control study Exposed Cases (People with disease) Not Exposed Population Exposed Not Exposed Controls (People without disease) Time Direction of inquiry

Case-control VS Cohort Cause Effect Factors Disease Case-Control Factors Disease Cohort *Ram Ragsin, MD MPH DrPH Department of Military & Community Medicine Phramongkutklao College of Medicine

Case-Control Study Strengths Uniquely suited to diseases with long incubation periods More efficient in terms of time and money Good for study of rare disease Can look at multiple exposures for a single disease Case-control studies usually require much smaller sample sizes than do equivalent cohort studies Case-control studies are generally able to evaluate confounding and interaction rather more precisely for the same overall sample size than are cohort studies. *Janit Kaewkungwal Faculty of Tropical Medicine Mahidol University

Case-Control Study Limitation Inefficient for evaluation of rare exposures Cannot directly compute incidence rates of disease Temporal relationship between E and D may be hard to establish. Case-control studies often do not involve a time sequence, and so are limited in their ability to demonstrate causality. Particularly prone to bias (selection and recall in particular) Being identified as a case might reflect survival rather than morbidity. Case-control studies can investigate only one disease outcome. May be confounded by unknown exposures Appropriate control group often difficult to find *Janit Kaewkungwal Faculty of Tropical Medicine Mahidol University

Odds “The number of times the outcome occurs relative to the number of times its does not.” Odds = number of cases of disease number of non-cases of disease

Odds Ratio Disease a b c d c+d a+c b+d N a+b smoke Exposure Not smoke CA lung (case) No CA (control) a b c d c+d a+c b+d N a+b smoke Exposure Not smoke Odds of exposure if case = [a/(a+c)] / [c/(a+c)] = a/c Odds of exposure if control = [b/(b+d)] / [d/(b+d)] = b/d OR = Odds of exposure if case = a/c Odds of exposure if control b/d

Relative risk VS Odds ratio (1) If disease is rare relative risk  Odds ratio Cohort study Cases Non-cases Total Exposed 75 (a) 9,925 (b) 10,000 (a+b) Unexposed 25 (c) 9,975 (d) 10,000 (c+d) 100 19900 20,000 Relative Risk = A / A+B = 0.75%/0.25% = 3.0 C / C+D

Relative risk VS Odds ratio (2) Case-control study Cases Controls Exposed 75 50 Unexposed 25 Odds ratio = 75X50 = 3.0 25x50 relative risk  Odds ratio

Cross-sectional studies Measure the prevalence of disease and often called prevalence studies The easiest step to find an association (Factor & Disease) by comparing exposed and non-exposed population Assess both EXPOSURE and DISEASE at the SAME TIME (simultaneously) Analyze results from a survey *Ram Ragsin, MD MPH DrPH Department of Military & Community Medicine Phramongkutklao College of Medicine

Design of a Cross-sectional study +Exposure +Disease Gather data on Exposure and disease (simultaneously) +Exposure -Disease Defined population -Exposure +Disease -Exposure -Disease

Prevalence Rate Ratio Estimate the “Relative Risk” from a cross-sectional study Prevalence Rate Ratio = 10% / 5% = 2 “Those who had high cholesterol were 2 times more likely to develop HT than those who did not” *Ram Ragsin, MD MPH DrPH Department of Military & Community Medicine Phramongkutklao College of Medicine

Thank you