Space platform and Orbits Introduction to Remote Sensing Instructor: Dr. Cheng-Chien LiuCheng-Chien Liu Department of Earth Sciences National Cheng Kung University Last updated: 11 October 2004 Chapter 2
Platform of remote sensing Various platform Towers, balloons, model aircraft, kites, helicopter (Fig), light aircraft, jet aircraft, reconnaissance aircraft, low-earth orbit satellite, geostationary satellite, … Range and altitude (see Fig 10.1 in Rees 2001) Concept of multistage of remote sensing (Fig 1.21) Our focus
Aircraft Characteristics Operation: convenient and flexible Routes, time, speed, … Restriction of weather condition Range of payload Altitude Spatial resolution Disadvantages Duration Spatial coverage Position GPS (global position system) GCPs (ground control points) Motion Fig
Satellite Characteristics Temporally homogeneous observation Spatial coverage Stability Disadvantages Expensive Flexibility Spatial resolution Debate on the replacement of airborne remote sensing by satellite remote sensing
Launch of satellite Traditional approach – rocket New approach 1: space shuttle New approach 2: The X prize The X prize The X prize
Traditional approach – rocket Fuel Classical mechanics Increasing speed v by burning a mass M f of fuel where u is the speed of the exhaust gases relative to the rocket, M i is the initial mass
Traditional approach – rocket (cont.) Placing a satellite in orbit Way 1: (see Fig 10.3 in Rees 2001) Launch vertically upwards Increase an orbit velocity Example R = 7200 km R E = 6400 km GM = x m 3 s -2 v 1 = 3.7 m s -1 v 2 = 7.5 m s -1 v = 11.2 m s -1
Traditional approach – rocket (cont.) Placing a satellite in orbit (cont.) Way 2: (see Fig 10.4 in Rees 2001) Launch tangentially Increase an circular orbit velocity Example R = 7200 km R E = 6400 km GM = x m 3 s -2 v 1 = 8.2 m s -1 v 2 = 0.2 m s -1 v = 8.4 m s -1 Tangential speed of Earth’s surface = 0.5 v = 7.9 m s -1
Traditional approach – rocket (cont.) Placing a satellite in orbit (cont.) Rationale of having a multi-stage rocket v = 8 m s -1 u = 2.4 km M f / M i = 96% Payload < 4%
The Elements of a Satellite Orbit Source:
The Elements of a Satellite Orbit (cont.) An ideal elliptical orbit Fig 10.5 in Rees 2001 Perigee P Apogee A Major axis, semi-major axis Minor axis, semi-minor axis Eccentricity e b 2 = a 2 (1 – e 2 ) Period GM = ( ) x m 3 s -2
The Elements of a Satellite Orbit (cont.) An ideal elliptical orbit (cont.) Position of the satellite in the orbital plane Relationship between and t Series expansion against e For most artificial satellite: e < 0.01 ∴ t
The Elements of a Satellite Orbit (cont.) An inclined elliptical orbit Fig 10.6 in Rees 2001 Inclination Prograde Retrograde Exact polar orbit Near-polar orbit Give the greatest coverage of the Earth’s surface Widely used for low-orbit satellite More expensive to launch Ascending node Ascending Descending
The Elements of a Satellite Orbit (cont.) Sub-satellite point Based on spherical trigonometry Latitude b Longitude l Fig 10.7 in Rees 2001 Typical sub-satellite tracks for circular orbits of inclination 60 0, 89 0, Earth’s rotation westwards drift of sub-satellite track
Effects of the Earth’s asphericity Earth oblate spheroid The gravitational potential a e : the earth’s equatorial radius J 2 : dynamical form factor The most convenient way to describe mathematically the effect of this non-spherical Earth on the motion of a satellite is to write the gravitational potential as a sum of spherical harmonics
Effects of the Earth’s asphericity Three effects Nodal period Precession (see Fig 10.8 in Rees 2001) Rotating the elliptical orbit in its own plane (Fig 10.9)
Special orbits Geostationary orbits Geostationary orbits Geostationary orbits Place the satellite into a circular orbit above the equator Nodal period P n = Earth’s rotational period P E Sidereal day = 24 /(1+1/365.24) = hr = s i = 0 0 e = 0 a = km h = km GOES-2 visible band (Fig 6.36) Not the full coverage but just over 81 0 In practice,
Special orbits (cont.) Geo-synchronous orbits Geo-synchronous orbits Geo-synchronous orbits Place a satellite in a geostationary orbit above a point that is not located on the equator Nodal period P n = Earth’s rotational period P E Sidereal day = 24 /(1+1/365.24) = hr = s i 0 0 The sub-satellite path: figure-of-eight pattern Not used in remote sensing
Special orbits (cont.) Molniya orbits Molniya orbits Molniya orbits Select orbital parameters highly eccentric with apogee positioned above the desired point spend longer on station than in the wrong hemisphere i = or Nodal period P n = ½ Earth’s rotational period P E a = km If P n = P E and small e unhelpful large distance of apogee Example e = 0.74 Perigee distance = 6900 km, apogee distance = km Sub-satellite track of Molniya orbit (see Fig in Rees 2001) On station for 8 hours three satellite can provide continuous coverage
Special orbits (cont.) Low Earth orbits Low Earth orbits Low Earth orbits Widely used Increasing spatial resolution at the expense of reduced coverage Range van Allen belt van Allen belt Sun-synchronous orbit Precess about the Earth’s polar axis at the same rate (one revolution per year) that the Earth orbits the Sun Mean angular speed S = 2 per year = s -1 Inclination and nodal period for circular sun-synchronous orbits (see Fig in Rees 2001)
Special orbits (cont.) Low Earth orbits (cont.) Low Earth orbits Low Earth orbits Advantages of Sun-synchronous orbit View a large fraction of the Earth’s surface Cross the same latitude at the same local solar time
Special orbits (cont.) Exactly repeating orbits
Homework C-prize Describe an innovative way of remote sensing that could be deployed in the future Explain the feasibility of your idea Derive all equations that were used for placing a satellite in orbit The altitude of TERRA orbit is 705 km. Please calculate the required inclination to achieve a circular sun-synchronous orbit.