Organizational Psychology: A Scientist-Practitioner Approach Jex, S. M Organizational Psychology: A Scientist-Practitioner Approach Jex, S. M., & Britt, T. W. (2014) Prepared by: Christopher J. L. Cunningham, PhD University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Kelsey-Jo Ritter Bowling Green State University Kristen S. Jennings Clemson University

Chapter 11: Leadership and Influence Processes Approaches and theories of leadership are presented; also discussed are the roles of power and influence among leaders

Defining Leadership Complex phenomenon Defined in terms of behaviors or outcomes Common ground treats leadership as a process with wide-ranging effects Figure 11.1 Comment 11.1

Importance of Leadership Critical leader behaviors: Providing strategic direction and vision Motivation and coaching Enforcement and interpretation of organizational policies Obtaining resources for organizational groups

Trait Approach Effective leaders are inherently different from ineffective leaders Research is not supporting a clear leader profile, so leader emergence is also a common focus Traits may predict leader emergence and managerial effectiveness/advancement Shift toward considering combinations of traits rather than isolated characteristics Shortcomings of this approach

Behavioral Approach Effective leaders behave differently from ineffective ones Split between leadership focused on task completion and on interpersonal relations Consideration of leader behaviors perceived as needed by employees Limitations with a two-dimensional model, but there may be some merit here Still, no consistent behavioral profile for effective leader

Contingency Approach There is no universal set of effective leader traits or behaviors across all situations Good leadership requires effective reading of the situation and adjustment of behaviors to fit present needs Currently this is the most common approach to leadership

Fiedler’s Contingency Theory Highlights influence of situation favorability Based on leader-member relations, task structure, and leader’s position power Octants of favorability are discussed (Figure 11.3) Task- vs. relationship-oriented distinction and the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) as a means of assessing this distinction among leaders LPC and situational favorability (Figure 11.4) Mixed empirical support for this theory May relate to Cognitive Resource Theory More modern theories of leadership begin here

Path-Goal Theory Leadership and motivation blend, highlighting leader’s influence over subordinates’ success— showing the path to the goal Adaptiveness of leadership styles: Directive, supportive, achievement-oriented, and participative forms depending on situation Leader style based on characteristics of a leader’s subordinates and environment Difficult theory to test, but clear implications for management training, development, selection, and placement

Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model Effective leadership from decision-making styles that fit a given environment or situation Leaders select the best decision-making styles based on eight situational attributes (Table 11.2, Figure 11.5) Research supports the model’s tenets, but model may oversimplify decision-making conditions

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Vertical dyad linkages between leaders and subordinates Links may differ depending on the social exchange between a leader and a subordinate In-group vs. out-group employees Leader-subordinate relationships develop over time LMX has positive effects within organizations such as with OCB, performance, and job attitudes Challenge of defining and measuring exchange relationships

Charismatic/Transformational and Transactional Leadership Charismatic/transformational forms associated with leader behaviors that influence and inspire subordinates with the potential for creating meaningful change within an organization Dimensions of transformational leadership: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration Transactional (contingent reward) based on following rules and emphasizing reward or punishment for guiding subordinate behavior All three forms may be present in a single leader

Authentic Leadership Developing theory based on leaders being “who they are” and connecting with subordinates by means of this being-true-to-self quality Dimensions of self-authenticity Self-awareness Balanced processing Relational transparency Internalized morale perspective

Servant Leadership Recent trend in theory and research Seven characteristics of a servant leader Establishing relations with followers through dedicating time and attention Empowering followers Facilitating follower development and growth Ethical behavior Ability to think conceptually Showing a focus on followers and their success Supporting stakeholders outside the organization

Ethical and Unethical Leadership Increased interest due to unethical leader behaviors in recent years Ethical leadership: Normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and through promotion of such conduct in followers Unethical leadership: High self-interest, exploiting others, being vengeful

Power and Influence in Organizations Leader effectiveness is closely associated with a person’s ability to use power to influence others Power: One’s potential to influence others Four outcomes of power/influence: Compliance Identification Internalization Resistance

Bases of Power French and Raven’s model: Coercive (personal and impersonal) Reward (personal and impersonal) Legitimate (based on position, reciprocity, equity, and dependence) Expert (positive and negative) Referent (positive and negative) Informational (direct and indirect) Ownership Prestige power

Influence Tactics Nine main tactics (Table 11.3): Rational persuasion Inspirational appeals Consultation Ingratiation Exchange Personal appeal Coalition (using social proof) Legitimating Pressure Power of combining tactics is highlighted

Politics in Organizations Defined as influence behavior within organizations that develops outside traditional power systems and benefits a person or group at the expense of the organization Close relationship with power in organizations Several factors motivating politics within organizations: Uncertainty Scarcity of resources Technological change Ambiguity in decision making Organizational change

Politics in Organizations (Cont.) Dark side of organizational politics = divide and conquer Minimal research suggests politics have negative consequences within organizations Four specific political tactics: Impression management Information management Promotion of the opposition Pursuing line responsibility

Organizational Political Tactics Five strategies linked with impression management: Self-promotion Ingratiation Exemplification Intimidation Supplication

Organizational Political Tactics (Cont.) Information management: Based on premise that information is power Promotion of the opposition: Counterintuitive strategy based on helping an opponent move ahead and out of the way Pursuing line responsibility: Finding a position within the organization that will allow a person to exert one’s influence (ideally close to core technology)