Albert Einstein ( ) – a radical - in science and in politics SFU, Surrey campus (October 2015) Albert Einstein ( ) – a radical - in science and in politics SFU, Surrey campus (October 2015)

Einstein’s student years: obstacles for a possible academic career A Jew (non-observant). De-facto discrimination for academic jobs Renounced his German citizenship. Took years to obtain a Swiss one. Studied in a “provincial” Zurich Polytechnikum. Autodidact. Had strained relations with his professors and was not appointed to an Assistant position. Found a non- academic job as a patent expert 3 rd class. Eventually defended his PhD at Zurich University, rather than with one of the major German professors at an established “school.” Specialized in theoretical, rather than the much more prestigious at the time, experimental physics.

Some of the fin-de-siècle discoveries that challenged established theories and provoked the talk of a “crisis” and a possible radical revision of fundamental concepts in physics - X-rays (1895), Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen ( ) - Radioactivity from uranium ores (1896), Henri Becquerel ( )

By 1900, discovery of the electron and successes of electromagnetic theory inspired hopes that electricity may be the most fundamental, unifying concept of all physics, and that electromagnetic view of the world can replace the earlier, mechanical picture of the world. Hendrick Antoon Lorentz ( ) - The electron theory (Maxwell’s electromagnetic field combined with the concept of electron as a particle) - The electron theory (Maxwell’s electromagnetic field combined with the concept of electron as a particle) - Electron theories of atomic spectra (the Zeeman effect) - Michelson experiment and contraction of moving bodies - The Lorentz Transformation and the concept of local time Henri Electromagnetic View of Nature Henri Poincaré ( ) - Physics as built upon several universal principles, including the principle of relativity. - Instrumental procedures for measurements of time and for coordination of clocks. - Diagnosed the Crisis in Physics as the inadequacy of old mechanistic theories to account for the new phenomena (electron, radioactivity and quanta).

Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity (1905) combined and generalized important insights by Lorentz, Poincaré, and Mach. Ernst Mach ( ), physicist and philosopher. Criticized Newton’s absolute space and time as “metaphysical,” i.e. non-scientific, non- empirical assumptions. But rather than committing himself to the electromagnetic ontology of nature, Einstein relied on the laws and results of electromagnetic theory for the purpose of rethinking the classical Newtonian concepts of time, space, and motion.

Einstein’s “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies” (1905): Physics of Principles, modeled on such examples as the principle of energy conservation. Physics of Principles, modeled on such examples as the principle of energy conservation. Postulate 1. Principle of relativity: Physical laws are invariant for all inertial frames of reference (This had been established in mechanics, but Einstein held it true for electromagnetic as well as all other physical laws.) Postulate 2 (derived, or generalized, from Michelson‘s experiment). The speed of light is constant for the moving and for the non-moving observer.

A counterintuitive consequesce: for the observer in the moving train, light hits both walls of the car simultaneously, but for observer standing on the station, light hits the rear wall first, and the front wall only later.

Special Theory of Relativity, as formulated by Einstein in 1905: - Time and simultaneity are not absolute. These basic concepts are introduced operationally: we can define what time is only by designing an instrumental method of its measurement and of coordination of clocks. - There is no need for the concept of “luminiferous aether” (a special medium for light and electromagnetic waves to travel through) and the associated privileged frame of reference. Hermann Minkowski ( ) Formulated in 1909 a further, most important consequence of relativity theory: Space and time coordinates cannot be separated. They transform into one another by movement. Physical world is a four-dimensional space-time manifold.

An instrumental procedure of coordination of electric clocks via exchange of signals was already used at the time, prompted by the spread of railroads and the telegraph. “Railway Time,” the conventional time, different from the astronomical time for most cities. The International Meridian Conference (1884) and time zones across the globe

Einstein’s “revolutionary” idea of the light quantum, 1905 Albert Einstein, “On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Creation and Conversion of Light,” Annalen der Physik 17 (1905) A self-conscious “revolutionary” Unlike the special relativity, the idea of light quantum is initially rejected by almost all of Einstein’s colleagues.

Atomicity of Light Einstein was aiming at a uniform description for both, light and “ponderable” matter: - “Light carries mass with it!” - It is “something having an independent [from the medium] existence, just like matter.” The atomistic hypothesis that had won in chemistry, then extended into the structure of matter and electricity (the electron), was now carried on even further and applied to light. Einstein’s analogy for the light quantum: the Lorentz electron that had been added to the continuous electromagnetic theory of Maxwell.

The Solvay Conference (1911) Einstein was invited to participate in an exclusive conference of major experts to discuss the most pressing unresolved problems in physics. Their general conclusion: the mysterious quanta presented a fundamental difficulty and could not be reconciled with the existing laws of physics. However, Einstein’s idea of an atomistic structure of light was almost universally rejected. Most participants preferred to locate the quantum discontinuity in some complicated, yet unknown, process of interaction between light and matter, rather than in the structure of light itself.

Einstein’s election to the Prussian Academy of Sciences (1914) The best possible academic job: Prestige, location, freedom (for work, and also from teaching). But required accepting a German citizenship. Planck and several other senior members of the Academy who nominated Einstein praised his important accomplishments, but referred to the proposal of light quanta as his only (and thus excusable) serious blunder.

The Wave-Particle Duality After WWI, light quanta began to grow rapidly in popularity, especially among younger physicists. Einstein’s own struggles: despite various attempts, he was not able to design a comprehensive model that could explain both types of experiments together: the experiments in which light behaved like a wave, and those in which light behaved like a particle. The concept of “wave-particle duality” is often mistakenly attributed to Einstein. He did not endorse this “verbal” answer as a solution, because for him the wave-particle problem remained a fundamental difficulty, unresolved even in later quantum mechanics. Unreconciled with the field.

World War I and the collapse of scientific internationalism Prewar (Inter)Nationalism in science: Open competition and international meetings that appealed to nationalistic emotions (similar to the Olympic Games) After the start of the war: many scientists in belligerent countries carried away by the popular wave of extreme nationalistic euphoria and war enthusiasm. - “An die Kulturwelt” - Manifesto of the 93 German academics, including Planck and Nernst (October 1914) - “Aufruf an die Europäer” – anti-war appeal by Nicolai, Einstein, and two others; printed 1917 in Switzerland - Post-war boycott of German and Austrian science by the victors

The war of manifestos: Started by “An die Kulturwelt” (October 1914), a manifesto of 93 leading German scholars, including Nobel prize winners, in support of the German military and war aims. Boycott (until 1927): Similar manifestos by French and British scientists, the termination of international contacts, and the lasting postwar boycott of the German science by the victors. Leading ideologues of scientific nationalism in Britain and Germany: William Ramsay ( ) Philipp Lenard ( )

An anti-war manifesto in favor of (European) internationalism and pacifism: “Aufruf an die Europäer,” written by Georg Friedrich Nicolai ( ), could collect only 3 additional supporting signatures, including Einstein’s. The manifesto was published in neutral Switzerland in Its author, regarded as a traitor by the patriotic public, was receiving death threats and eventually had to flee Germany. Einstein’s antiwar position and political isolation in wartime Berlin (was trying to stay calm despite having to live in an asylum built for insane people). His scientific isolation: delivered regular reports to the Berlin Academy on the progress of his work on relativistic theory of gravity, but found little understanding among colleagues.

Anti-War Stance (very rare in 1914 Europe) Bertrand Russell Rosa Luxemburg ( ) ( ) Jean Jaurès ( ) Vladimir Lenin ( ) A few radical intellectuals and a few radical socialists (postwar communists, rather than social-democrats)

After several different proposals, the final rush towards the generally covariant field equations: July to November 1915 Collaboration, discussions, and competition with mathematician David Hilbert in Göttingen. 25 November 1915: report to the Berlin Academy Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity (relativistic theory of gravitation)

6 November 1919 (the war had ended one year earlier) Einstein’s relativity made headlines in media across the world following Arthur Eddington’s ( ) announcement of an experimental confirmation of its astronomical prediction (that light rays bend when passing near the Sun)

“Einstein meets Marilyn Monroe” (by Quint Buchholz?) After November 1919, Einstein became a popstar, a cultural icon, and a media fixation. His ideal life as a keeper of light-house was not possible. Einstein’s response: since he could no longer escape the media attention, he did not keep his mouth shut, but made journalists listen to his views and report them, however radical and displeasing to the public.

The Politics of Relativity Theory The British astronomer Arthur Eddington, a Quaker and a pacifist. The link between two scientists who had opposed the World War in their respective countries transformed an esoteric theory of relativity into a political symbol of unpatriotic internationalism and a battleground for different ideological forces. On his part, Einstein became an outspoken public intellectual who lent his name to various activist groups. A new meaning of relativity: in Berlin, Einstein was denounced as a Jew, but in Paris, as a German. Einstein at a pacifist rally in Berlin, with his French colleague Paul Langevin.

Einstein’s political identities, awakened by WWI 1) As a “European.” Downplayed the meaning of national citizenship (and changed it several times). Identified himself with common European culture. The source of world wars: the nation states that combine specific nationalisms with state power, military might, indoctrination at school, and mass media propaganda.

2) As a “Jew.” Einstein’s Jewish identity became important to him in solidarity with the plight of helpless war refugees from Polish lands (traditional and deprived of everything, unlike the mostly assimilated and emancipated, middle-class German Jews). “Jewishness” for him – not racial or religious, but in the cultural tradition of social justice and intellectual, if impractical pursuits. Seeing no other solution against European anti-Semitism, he endorsed the Zionist project of emigration to Palestine (with an important reservation: he did not support the creation of a Jewish nation state)

2) As a “Socialist” Einstein’s radical opposition to WWI and to nationalism – similar to analogous views of radical socialists. Economic considerations, especially during the global economic crisis, late 1920s. Minimal wage and limited working day. State regulation and planning as remedies against the self-destructive forces of “anarchic” capitalism.

“Einstein’s” letter to Roosevelt, August 1939, on the possibility of uranium weapon (Composed by Edward Teller, signed by Einstein). Post-1945: regretted his advice, since the threat of the Nazi bomb did not materialize. In reality: Einstein’s letter was not responsible for the Manhattan project. Einstein’s conditional “pacifism”: promoted disarmament and conscientious objection during the 1920s. Abandoned pacifism as impractical resistance in the face of the rising Nazism in Germany. Photo: staged reenacting in 1945, with Leó Szilárd.

Einstein with Henry A. Wallace and Paul Robeson, support of Wallace’s presidential campaign in 1948 Einstein with Henry A. Wallace and Paul Robeson, support of Wallace’s presidential campaign in 1948 Einstein – a critic of the Cold War and nuclear weapons. The 1955 Russell- Einstein manifesto. The misnamed idea of the “world government”: Einstein thought that as long as the UN left the military power to the sovereignty of the nation states, it will not be able to prevent further wars.