Genetics, Families, & Social Development: The Important Contributions of Adoptive Families Half-Day Conference for Adoptive Families and Professionals Spence-Chapin New York April 18, 2008 Jenae Neiderhiser, Ph.D. The Pennsylvania State University Leslie Leve, Ph.D. Oregon Social Learning Center

Workshop Outline I. Overview of Genetics II. Description of the Early Growth & Development Study (and family of studies) III. Early Results from EGDS IV. Implications for Prevention and Services for Adoptive Families

I. Overview of Genetics Developmental Behavior Genetics Behavior genetics: Exploration of the potential influence of genes and experience upon a behavior Focus: Individual differences & the similarity (covariance) of relatives Research Strategies: Twin studies, Family studies, & Adoption studies (and combinations)

Individual Differences: Concerned with differences among individuals within a population e.g. How does antisocial behavior differ in a population of teenagers? Group Differences: Concerned with differences between groups within a population e.g. How do teenage boys and girls differ for antisocial behavior?

Estimating genetic & environmental influences Examine family members who differ in degree of genetic relatedness Examine family members who differ in degree of genetic relatedness identical twins, fraternal twins, parent-biological child, adoptive parent-adopted child identical twins, fraternal twins, parent-biological child, adoptive parent-adopted child Compare similarity in family members (correlations) Compare similarity in family members (correlations)

Genetic influences Genetic influences Indicated by increased similarity for increased genetic relatedness Indicated by increased similarity for increased genetic relatedness MZ twins > DZ twins > adopted siblings MZ twins > DZ twins > adopted siblings Shared environmental influences Shared environmental influences Indicated by within-family similarity Indicated by within-family similarity ANY similarity in adopted siblings or between adopted children & their adoptive parents ANY similarity in adopted siblings or between adopted children & their adoptive parents Nonshared environmental influences Nonshared environmental influences Indicated by differences in family members Indicated by differences in family members ANY differences between MZ twins ANY differences between MZ twins

Covariance of Relatives GEsEn Identical Twins1.0 0 Fraternal Twins Full Siblings Adoptive Siblings01.00 Birth Parent-Child.5000 Adoptive Parent-Child01.00

Heritability: Proportion of total variance that can be explained by genetic differences in individuals in that population Environmentality: Proportion of total variance that can be explained by nongenetic (environmental) differences in individuals in that population Shared environment – all nongenetic influences that make family members similar to one another Nonshared environment – all nongenetic influences that make family members different from one another

Important Points about genetic and environmental influences Heritability does not equal immutability – it can be changed and modified by the environment Heritability can, and does, change over time There is a large amount of variation that is not due to genetic factors

“Genetic influence” on a phenotype does not imply: -the environment is unimportant -genetic determinism, or even a close relationship between genes & behavior Environmental influences are all nongenetic influences that contribute to individual differences May include: prenatal effects, environmental influences on DNA, traditional environmental factors (parenting, neighborhood, SES, etc.)

Patterns of Genetic & Environmental Influences Wide range of behaviors have been examined across the lifespan Physical characteristics (height/weight) Physical characteristics (height/weight) Personality & temperament Personality & temperament Mental health & psychopathology Mental health & psychopathology Social relationships & behavior Social relationships & behavior

Sample Twin Correlations

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Psychological Traits

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Interpersonal Relationships

General patterns of genetic & environmental influences on interpersonal relationships most salient for children & adolescents Parenting Warmth/Support & Conflict/Negativity Warmth/Support & Conflict/Negativity Tend to show genetic influences Tend to show genetic influences Monitoring & Control Monitoring & Control Tend to show shared environmental influences Tend to show shared environmental influences Sibling relationships Mostly reciprocal in nature  due to shared environmental influences Mostly reciprocal in nature  due to shared environmental influences Peer relationships Vary by construct, generally due to genetic & shared environmental influences Vary by construct, generally due to genetic & shared environmental influences

How can we understand genetic influences on “environmental” measures and interpersonal relationships? Passive Genotype-Environment Correlation Parent Temperament Parenting Behavior and/or Parent-Child Relationship GPGP GcGc.50

How can we understand genetic influences on “environmental” measures and interpersonal relationships? Evocative Genotype-Environment Correlations parent influences child evokes Parental CONFLICT/NEG FAMILY EFFECTS Child behavioral CHARACTERISTICS CHILD EFFECTS GCGC

Direction of effects: Child to parent (evocative rGE) Parent to child (passive rGE or E) What are the mechanisms of the environment’s influence on child outcomes? Why do we care?

Mechanisms of Parenting Parenting behavior Parent’s characteristics Contextual factors Child’s characteristics Passive GE Correlation Evocative GE Correlation GpGp GcGc

Nonshared Environment in Adolescent Development Project (NEAD) Reiss, Hetherington, Plomin (PIs of T1 & T2), Neiderhiser (PI T3) 2 family types: nondivorced & step families 5 sibling types: MZ & DZ twins, full, half, step Time 2 Assessment N=384 families Age range 13-21

Twin/Offspring Study in Sweden 909 pairs of twin families 909 pairs of twin families 350 pairs of twin fathers (128 MZ; 183 DZ) 350 pairs of twin fathers (128 MZ; 183 DZ) 559 pairs of twin mothers (254 MZ; 285 DZ) 559 pairs of twin mothers (254 MZ; 285 DZ) 1 adolescent child/family ( yrs) 1 adolescent child/family ( yrs) Cousin pairs w/in 4 years of age Cousin pairs w/in 4 years of age Same sex cousin pairs (49% boys) Same sex cousin pairs (49% boys) Spouse/other parent Spouse/other parent Cohabitating for at least 5 years Cohabitating for at least 5 years Over 90% of spouses are biological parent of child Over 90% of spouses are biological parent of child

NEAD and TOSS Designs Spouse 2 Twin Parent 1 NEAD Twin Parent 2 Spouse 1 Child of Twin 1 Child of Twin 2 Child 1 Child 2 TOSS Mom Dad 1.0=MZ twins;.50=DZ twins & full siblings;.25=half siblings; 0=step siblings 1.0=MZ twin parents;.50=DZ twin parents.25=children of MZ twin parents;.125=children of DZ twin parents

Parenting: GE Correlation Mostly Evocative GE Correlation Evocative & Passive GE Correlation Passive & Evocative GE Correlation Fathering Mothering

Evidence for Evocative GE Correlation: Adopted Adolescents and Adoptive Parents Marital Warmth Psychiatric Disorders Mother’s Discipline Antisocial/ Hostile Beh. -.46*.48*.31*.44* -.05 Adoptive Parents Birth Parents Adoptive Mother Adopted Child from Ge et al., 1996

Average negative control by adoptive parents of children whose birth mothers were antisocial (at risk) or not Age (in years) from O’Connor et al., 1998

Gene-environment Interplay Two types Two types Genotype – environment correlation Genotype – environment correlation Genotype x environment interaction Genotype x environment interaction BOTH genetic factors & environmental factors (typically risk) are required for a specific outcome BOTH genetic factors & environmental factors (typically risk) are required for a specific outcome For example… For example…

Antisocial personality in birth parent No antisocial personality in birth parent Adverse Adoptive Home Environment Factors (adoptive parent marital or legal problems or psychiatric d/o) Number of childhood aggression symptoms Interaction of genetic influence and family characteristics in childhood aggression (Cadoret, 1995) Favorable Unfavorable

Thanks to the research teams that make this work possible NEAD Robert Plomin (IoP) Robert Plomin (IoP) David Reiss (GWU) David Reiss (GWU) E. Mavis Hetherington (UVA) E. Mavis Hetherington (UVA) Mark Feinberg (PSU) Mark Feinberg (PSU) Erica Spotts (NIA) Erica Spotts (NIA) Dean Hamer (NCI) Dean Hamer (NCI) Jody Ganiban (GWU) Jody Ganiban (GWU) Rich Rende (Brown) Rich Rende (Brown) many other students & postdocs many other students & postdocs R01s MH43373, MH48825, & MH59014 & the William T. Grant Foundation R01s MH43373, MH48825, & MH59014 & the William T. Grant FoundationTOSS Paul Lichtenstein (KI) Paul Lichtenstein (KI) David Reiss (GWU) David Reiss (GWU) Nancy Pedersen (KI) Nancy Pedersen (KI) Jody Ganiban (GWU) Jody Ganiban (GWU) Erica Spotts (NIA) Erica Spotts (NIA) Suzanne Haddad (GWU) Suzanne Haddad (GWU) Jurgita Naruyste (KI) Jurgita Naruyste (KI) Jennifer Ulbricht (GWU) Jennifer Ulbricht (GWU) Lennart Martinnson (KI) Lennart Martinnson (KI) Elias Ericksson (Göteborgs Universitet) Elias Ericksson (Göteborgs Universitet) R01MH54601 & Riksbankens Jubieleumsfond (DNA collection & genotyping) R01MH54601 & Riksbankens Jubieleumsfond (DNA collection & genotyping)

II. Early Growth and Development Study 560 domestic adoption placements to non- relative families (360 in EGDS-Toddler and 200 in EGDS-Phase 2) 560 domestic adoption placements to non- relative families (360 in EGDS-Toddler and 200 in EGDS-Phase 2) Adoption occurred within 3 mo. post- partum Adoption occurred within 3 mo. post- partum Infant free of major medical problems Infant free of major medical problems 3 major assessments for birth parents and 6 major assessments for adoptive families spanning infancy through 1st grade (EGDS-School) 3 major assessments for birth parents and 6 major assessments for adoptive families spanning infancy through 1st grade (EGDS-School) Multimethod, multiagent approach Multimethod, multiagent approach

Early Growth and Development Study 9 mo, 18 mo & 27 mo in-person assessment of adoptive families 9 mo, 18 mo & 27 mo in-person assessment of adoptive families 3-6 mo & 18 mo in- person assessment for birth parents 3-6 mo & 18 mo in- person assessment for birth parents Multimethod, multiagent approach Multimethod, multiagent approach

Yoked Adoption Unit: Yoked Adoption Unit: Birth mother/birth father, adoptive mother/father, & adopted child Birth mother/birth father, adoptive mother/father, & adopted child EGDS study design AC BM BF AM AF

EGDS Family of Studies EGDS-Toddler (PI: Reiss) Sept Aug 2007 n = 360 yoked adoption units parenting, context, externalizing, internalizing, social competence, birth parent characteristics EGDS-Phase 2 (PI: Neiderhiser) Sept 2007 – May 2012 n = 200 NEW from EGDS-Toddler New: 200 cases, DNA, enhanced measurement of birthparent experiences, prenatal exposures EGDS-School (PI: Leve) Sept 2007 – July 2012 n = 360 New: Emergent literacy, executive functioning, HPA axis functioning 3 mo to 6 mo Prenatal Period 9 mo 18 mo 27 mo mo 4 ½ yrs 6 yrs7 yrs

Recruitment locations Three data collection sites Three data collection sites Pacific Northwest (Oregon Social Learning Center) Pacific Northwest (Oregon Social Learning Center) Mid-Atlantic (George Washington University) Mid-Atlantic (George Washington University) Southwest (University of California, Davis) Southwest (University of California, Davis) One new site added for EGDS-Phase 2 One new site added for EGDS-Phase 2 Midwest (University of Minnesota) Midwest (University of Minnesota) (and PI moved to Penn State) (and PI moved to Penn State)

Recruitment Strategy Agency Recruitment Agency Recruitment Each data collection site identifies “local” agencies Each data collection site identifies “local” agencies Collects data on number and type of placements Collects data on number and type of placements Identify agency liaison once agency agrees to participate Identify agency liaison once agency agrees to participate 33 agencies in 10 states participated in EGDS-toddlers 33 agencies in 10 states participated in EGDS-toddlers 16 agencies participating in EGDS-Phase 2 (13 from EGDS-toddlers, 3 new) 16 agencies participating in EGDS-Phase 2 (13 from EGDS-toddlers, 3 new)

Recruitment Strategy Strategy to maximize linked birth parents & adoptive parents Strategy to maximize linked birth parents & adoptive parents Adoptive family recruitment Adoptive family recruitment Eligible adoptive families are mailed a letter by agency Eligible adoptive families are mailed a letter by agency Includes postage paid postcard to decline contact Includes postage paid postcard to decline contact If no postcard received within 2 weeks of mailing birth mother contact information is requested If no postcard received within 2 weeks of mailing birth mother contact information is requested If birth mother agrees to participate study recruiter contacts adoptive family If birth mother agrees to participate study recruiter contacts adoptive family First assessment – 6 mo telephone interview First assessment – 6 mo telephone interview

Recruitment Strategy Birth mother recruitment Birth mother recruitment If no postcard received within 2 weeks of mailing birth mother contact information is requested If no postcard received within 2 weeks of mailing birth mother contact information is requested Birth mother is contacted by study recruiter Birth mother is contacted by study recruiter First assessment – Wave 1 in-person interview, 3-6 months postpartum First assessment – Wave 1 in-person interview, 3-6 months postpartum EGDS Toddlers/School – 360 yoked birth mothers, 517 total (many unyoked) EGDS Toddlers/School – 360 yoked birth mothers, 517 total (many unyoked)

Recruitment Strategy Birth father recruitment Birth father recruitment Contact information requested from agency after birth mother and adoptive family agree to participate Contact information requested from agency after birth mother and adoptive family agree to participate Birth mothers are asked for contact information if agency can not provide this Birth mothers are asked for contact information if agency can not provide this Birth fathers are critical for the study (provide 50% of child’s genes) Birth fathers are critical for the study (provide 50% of child’s genes) EGDS Toddlers/School – 105 yoked birth fathers, 147 total (some unyoked) EGDS Toddlers/School – 105 yoked birth fathers, 147 total (some unyoked)

EGDS constructs Birth parents, adoptive parents, and childrenBirth parents, adoptive parents, and children Externalizing, internalizing, social competence Externalizing, internalizing, social competence Alcohol & drug use and problems Alcohol & drug use and problems Temperament Temperament Social context (stress, social support, economic circumstances, partner/marital relations) Social context (stress, social support, economic circumstances, partner/marital relations) Executive functioning and literacy Executive functioning and literacy DNA and salivary cortisol samples DNA and salivary cortisol samples Adoptive parents onlyAdoptive parents only Parenting Parenting Birth parents onlyBirth parents only Prenatal exposure to substances, toxins, stress Prenatal exposure to substances, toxins, stress

Assessment Telephone Assessments (10-15 minutes) Telephone Assessments (10-15 minutes) General well-being, short questionnaires General well-being, short questionnaires Mailed/Web-Based Interviews (1-1.5 hrs) Mailed/Web-Based Interviews (1-1.5 hrs) Completed before in-person assessments Completed before in-person assessments Cortisol collection mailed after in-person visit Cortisol collection mailed after in-person visit In-person Assessments (2-3 hours) In-person Assessments (2-3 hours) In home or convenient other location In home or convenient other location Computer-administered questions & interview Computer-administered questions & interview Video-recorded child tasks, parent-child interactions and marital interactions Video-recorded child tasks, parent-child interactions and marital interactions DNA collection DNA collection

Barrier Task – designed to elicit frustration (9 mo – Wave 1)

Clean-up Task – designed to see how parent structures task & child compliance 18-month old task (Wave 2) 18-month old task (Wave 2) Show video Show video

Flower Print Task – designed to examine coparenting (9 mo – Wave 1)

Demographics for BPs and APs: EGDS -Toddlers BMBFAMAF Mean age (range) (13-51) (15-45) (25-54) (26-60) Race (%) Caucasian African-American Hispanic/Latino4811 Multi-ethnic5522 Other2411 Mean education levelTradeschool College Annual household income (median) $14k$21k$119k People in home (mean)

Demographics (Con’t) Adoptive Parents Adoptive Parents 1% single 1% single 84% AM, 86% AF married 84% AM, 86% AF married 1% divorced/separated 1% divorced/separated 9% remarried 9% remarried 5% AM, 4% AF cohabitating, committed rel. 5% AM, 4% AF cohabitating, committed rel. Birth Parents Birth Parents 77% BM, 72% BF single 77% BM, 72% BF single 8% BM, 22% BF married 8% BM, 22% BF married 14% BM, 5% BF divorced/separated 14% BM, 5% BF divorced/separated 1% BM & BF remarried 1% BM & BF remarried

New Studies & Future Directions

Objectives: (1) Collection of DNA from all members of yoked adoption unit Birth parents Adopted child Adoptive parents (2) Addition of 200 more yoked adoption units EGDS-Phase 2 (PI: Neiderhiser, R01 DA020585)

EGDS-School: Family Process, Genes, and School Entry (PI: Leve, R01 HD ) Objectives: 1)Examine GxE mechanisms in preschool, school entry, and 1 st grade 2) Examine hypothesized social and neuroregulatory mechanisms specific to this developmental period: emergent literacy, HPA axis functioning, & executive functioning

Future Directions Emotion regulation within the family Emotion regulation within the family Applying for a grant to code the video taped data Applying for a grant to code the video taped data Emotion regulation within dyads Emotion regulation within dyads Coparenting Coparenting Translate interviews Translate interviews Allow recruitment of a Spanish-speaking population Allow recruitment of a Spanish-speaking population Capture changing trends in adoption Capture changing trends in adoption

III. EGDS results related to adoption Openness Agency satisfaction and services How adoption has affected aspects of your life

What was the level of openness in the adoption? 1-7 rating of the level of openness in the adoption

Openness Most families continue to report a moderate level of openness throughout toddlerhood (periodic phone contact, visits, or mail exchanges) Openness decreased somewhat over time according to adoptive mothers, adoptive father, birth mothers, and birth fathers. For example, at 9-months of age, 59% of adoptive mothers rated the adoption as “open” or “very open”. This decreased to 56% at 18-months, and 54% at 27- months.

How satisfied are adoptive families with the level of openness? 1-4 rating of the level of satisfaction (very satisfied  very dissatisfied in the level of openness in the adoption) Most families continue to report a high level of satisfaction with the level of openness throughout toddlerhood Satisfaction also decreased steadily over time according to adoptive mothers, adoptive father, birth mothers, and birth fathers. For example, at 9-months of age, 69% of adoptive fathers were “very satisfied” with the openness. This decreased to 63% at 18-months, and 53% at 27-months.

How would adoptive mothers change openness? 9-months 18-months 27-months

How would adoptive fathers change openness? 9-months 18-months 27-months

What does openness relate to? Adoptive mother, adoptive fathers, and birth mothers agree very strongly about the level of openness in the adoption, about the amount of contact, and about the amount of knowledge between parties Higher levels of openness are related to adoptive mothers’ and fathers’ increased satisfaction with the adoption process Higher levels of openness are related to birth mothers’ and birth fathers’ increased satisfaction with the adoption process and positive adjustment Ge et al., J. of Family Psychology, in press

How satisfied are adoptive mothers with the information they have about the birth parents? (very stable; numbers here are at 27-months) Birth Mothers Birth Fathers

How satisfied are adoptive fathers with the information they have about the birth parents? (very stable; numbers here are at 27-months) Birth Mothers Birth Fathers

Why did the adoptive family select their agency? On average, adoptive families looked at 3-4 agencies before selecting the one they used. The primary deciding factors were: The agency’s philosophy about adoption, including openness, and the agency mission statement (83%) The information received about the adoption agency from a packet, website, or meeting (69%) Other people’s recommendation, word of mouth, or agency reputation (68%) Geographic location of the agency (53%) Agency staff (50%)

Why did the birth mother select their agency? On average, birth mothers looked at about 2 agencies before selecting the one they used. The primary deciding factors were: The agency’s philosophy about adoption, including openness, and the agency mission statement (68%) The information received about the adoption agency from a packet, website, or meeting (64%) Services offered, such as counseling, meeting other birth parents, or support group (50%) Other people’s recommendation, word of mouth, or agency reputation (47%) Agency staff (45%)

Satisfaction (‘very’ or ‘somewhat’) with services The information agency provided about adoption process (96%) Education and support services (90%) Ability to make recommendations for outside services like counseling (89%) Staff responsiveness to requests (88%) Skill of the staff (92%) Policy about openness (98%) Home study process, including the length of time it took to complete it (95%) Matching process (95%) Placement process (94%) Post placement services (91%)

Agency services that were most helpful The matching/placement process Educational classes Orientation workshop Specific social worker/staff member Availability and support of agency staff Counseling Mediation with birth mother

Services sought outside of the agency Legal services (19%) Home study from a different agency (7%) Infant care/parenting classes (4%) Support group (4%) Counseling (3%)

The most difficult part of the adoption process Waiting for a child Coming to the decision to adopt The adoption process General adjustment to new child (lack of sleep, siblings) Coming to terms with infertility issues Adoption paperwork Cost Dealing with a failed adoption(s)

Nicest or most important thing someone did during the adoption process Support from friends and family Baby shower The birth parents choosing us to raise their child Friends and family providing meals Friends and family babysitting Friends and family sharing their experiences with adoption

How has your child affected your life? 27 months) Marital Relationship Other Children Satisfaction With Life

How has your child affected your life? 27 months) Marital Relationship Other Children Satisfaction With Life

IV. Implications for Prevention and Services Most challenging parenting issues Desired services Format of services

What months have been the most challenging to parent?

What do adoptive parents think are the “most challenging issues” as parents (1 st year of life)

What do adoptive parents think are the “most challenging issues” as parents (2nd year of life)

Desired Adoption-Specific Parenting Services  Talking to child about adoption (how/when)  Contact with birth parents (how much/how to manage)  Transracial and cultural issues (how to educate)  Blended families (how to discuss with your children)  Stigma/responding to others’ questions

Agency services families wished the agency had provided More/better education about the adoption process More/better support groups More parenting education More staff accessibility Support groups pre-placement More support for birth mothers

How often wanted some advice about parenting? Mothers Fathers

Top 3 areas where parenting information would be helpful 27 months) Disciplining Managing Toddler Emotions Temper Tantrums

Top 3 areas where parenting information would be helpful 27 months) Disciplining Managing Toddler Emotions Sleep Issues

Other areas where help information and services would be helpful (at least 1/3 of mothers said information would be ‘helpful’ or ‘very helpful’) Enhancing child’s strengths (46%) General child development (43%) Adoption issues (42%) Child compliance (40%) Child hitting, biting (39%) Child whining (38%) Child temperament (37%) How to play with child (34%)

How would you like to receive parenting resource information? Mothers Fathers

How often would you like services? Mothers Fathers

Summary Most adoptive parents, and especially mothers, would like more information about parenting Areas where information and services are most desired are: discipline and child behavior, general child development, strength building, and adoption Adoptive families would prefer these services be delivered as an as-needed or monthly basis Mailed information, information from a doctor or pediatrician, or parenting website are the most desirable formats 0-2 months, months, 18 months, and 24-months are times when parents report the most challenges

So where do we go from here? What kinds of services and programs might be beneficial?

Key components of ‘evidence-based’ programs for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers Teach warm and sensitive (but firm and consistent) parenting Strength-building Prevention-based Work within the multiple contexts that families and children interact in (home, school, community) Include both a child and caregiver components Include parenting groups for social support Weekly service delivery Video-based feedback

What about adoptive families? No evidence-based programs have been evaluated specifically for adoptive families, although there are evidence-based programs for foster parents Unique needs of adoptive families may include: generally well-educated and invested in parenting uncertainties about child’s genetic background transracial and cultural issues blended families interface with birth parents talking to child about adoption/their background ??

The adoptive family as a protective environment at child age 9-months Adoptive family emotional arousal AVERAGE Adoptive family emotional arousal HI Children in homes with average emotional arousal in the adoptive parents do not attend to frustrating events, even when there is an inherited tendency Birth Mother Externalizing Behavior Infant Attention to Frustration Task

The adoptive family as a protective environment at child age 18-months Adoptive family emotional arousal AVERAGE Adoptive family emotional arousal HI Children in homes with average emotional arousal in the adoptive parents do not show aversive responses, even when there is an inherited tendency Birth Parent Sociability HI LO

Providing structured guidance reduces genetic risk for externalizing behaviors Child externalizing behavior Adoptive mother structured guidance HI Birth parent Externalizing LO Birth parent Externalizing High structured guidance relates to low child externalizing problems, even when inherited risk

Parenting interventions can impact neuroregulatory functioning Fisher & Bruce (2008)

The EGDS Team Jenae Neiderhiser (PSU) Jenae Neiderhiser (PSU) Leslie Leve (OSLC) Leslie Leve (OSLC) Xiaojia Ge (UMN) Xiaojia Ge (UMN) David Reiss (GWU, Yale) David Reiss (GWU, Yale) John Reid (OSLC) John Reid (OSLC) Danny Shaw (U Pitt) Danny Shaw (U Pitt) Laura Scaramella (UNO) Laura Scaramella (UNO) Linda Mayes (Yale) Linda Mayes (Yale) Jody Ganiban (GWU) Jody Ganiban (GWU) Phil Fisher (OSLC) Phil Fisher (OSLC) Rand Conger (UC Davis) Rand Conger (UC Davis)Consultants: Joel Gelernter (Yale) Joel Gelernter (Yale) Joan Kaufman (Yale) Joan Kaufman (Yale) Steve Petrill (OSU) Steve Petrill (OSU) Steve Suomi (NICHD intramural) Steve Suomi (NICHD intramural) Over 30 participating adoption agencies across the US Over 30 participating adoption agencies across the US EGDS-toddlers & EGDS-school: R01HD (co-funding by NIDA & OD) EGDS-toddlers & EGDS-school: R01HD (co-funding by NIDA & OD) EGDS-Phase II: R01DA (co-funding by NIMH & OD) EGDS-Phase II: R01DA (co-funding by NIMH & OD) Too many recruiters & interviewers to name Too many recruiters & interviewers to name Amy Whitesel Amy Whitesel Cristin McArdle Cristin McArdle Tracy VanVlack Tracy VanVlack